Motivation is about adaptation to changing environmental conditions i.e. 'adaptability'.

"One of the most important issues of 'education' in its broad context (developing the mind) revolves around the matter of faith in the educability of humanity. There are those who do not have this faith in people's educability. They believe in the 'inherent inequality' of people - only some people can be responsible with an 'education'. and the rest should be 'acculturated and socialized'. (See remark of Jerome Bruner below) There are others who do have faith in peoples' educability. They believe that everyone can be educated to be free and responsible. They believe that it is the responsibility of the 'educators' to provide the necessary conditions which allow all people to develop their human potential." (David Purpel, 1989. The Moral and Spiritual Crisis in Education: A Curriculum for Justice and Compassion in Education. MA.: Bergin and Garvey Publishers, Inc. 10)

A practicable solution to the so-called 'problem of motivation' depends on shifting the direction of inquiry to a holistic perspective of the human organism as a social organism.

Motivation is intrinsic to the organism... 'intrinsic motivation' is functional in the process of adaptation The nature of any biological organism is a function of the instinctive motivation for learning which leads to adaptive learning and behaviour i.e. 'adaptability'. Any biological organism is intrinsically motivated for behaviour which is adaptive to its environment. The human organism is similarly motivated for adaptability. Human adaptability depends on the capacity for initiative and sustained concentration on a specific goal with a view to delayed response i.e. 'intrinsic motivation'. Intrinsic motivation maintains a proper balance between action and restraint and provides the individual with the sense of direction and the energy which they need in their efforts to adapt to changing social conditions.

Intrinsic motivation which is a function of the individual's unconscious or 'intrinsic' motives for behaviour i.e. 'human needs'.

The key to motivation is recognition of needs. "Human evolution is rooted in man's adaptability and in certain indestructible qualities of his nature which compel him never to cease his search for conditions better adjusted to his intrinsic needs" (Fromm. Man For Himself, 23)

theme: The human organism is a social organism with a social brain. As a social organism the human individual is instinctively motivated to relate to others - to 'socialise' and to 'assimilate' - in order to acquire the things which it needs for work and for defence. Motivations for socialisation and assimilation are intrinsic to the nature of the human personality i.e. 'human nature'.

The unique feature which differentiates the brain of humans from other primates is its capacity for concentrated attention for a long period of time i.e 'motivation'. Motivation for human behaviour lies in emotional forces at the unconscious level of the psyche - intrinsic motives for learning i.e. 'intrinsic motivation'. Intrinsic motivation is a function of development of moral consciousness or 'conscience'. Development of conscience or 'soul' is required for creative adaptation to changing social conditions i.e. 'adaptability'. Human adaptability depends on gratification of motives for behaviour rooted in the instinct for self-interest and self-preservation which depends on the organismic striving for 'mature growth' or 'self-actualisation' i.e. 'human needs'. Human needs include biologically based psychological needs... both 'lower psychological needs' or 'ego-needs' and 'higher psychological needs' - the growth needs or 'spiritual needs' i.e. 'metaneeds'. Human needs are 'value choices' or 'operative values' which function in the unfolding of human powers and human potential for 'wholeness' or 'health' i.e. 'well-being' or 'wellness'. Human wellness depends of satisfaction of developmental needs... In the presence of suitable conditions for growth normal motivation by growth needs is growth motivation or 'metamotivation'. (In the absence of suitable growth conditions abnormal motivation is by deficiency of growth needs i.e. 'deficiency motivation' or 'deficit motivation'... the basis for neurotic development or 'neurosis'.) Metamotivation is functional in development of the integrated personality. Education for the person as a whole is 'holistic education'.

Throughout human history... "While people's reactions and responses changed radically as a result of new external circumstances such as political revolutions and technological breakthroughs, their underlying assumptions remained essentially unchanged. They continued to assume that the predominantly creative force in their lives was external to them; it came from somewhere other than themselves...'circumstantial stimuli... any stimuli, external or internal, which seem to force people to take action. These sometimes evoke spontaneous reaction and at other times seem to call for 'appropriate' responses. This is the 'reactive-responsive orientation'. In this kind of situation, it seems that the circumstances are more powerful than you are. Strategies are designed to avoid immediate unwanted circumstances. Longer range strategies are designed to prevent unwanted circumstances from happening in the first place. This is called the 'pre-emptive strike'. Spiritual poverty results in defensive strategy; all the energy is focused on what the person does not want. People using it are continually in a position of potentially compromising whatever they may truly want in their lives for the sake of safety, security and sense of peace. Spiritual richness results in creative strategy; all the energy is focused on what the person does want. People using it are positive and creative, accomplishing things which enhance their own welfare and happiness as well as that of others". (Robert Fritz The Path of Least Resistance DMA Inc. Pickering Way, Salem MA 0l970 l984)

"The 'normalized' child's activities of work (are) related to the inner construction of the personality. The motivation to learn derives from this source. Teaching which corresponds to this motivation is functional in the child's development. The child's response is the best guide for the teacher. The child's interest and concentration indicates the extent of effectiveness of the teaching methodology in practice. The child loses motivation when the work is directed to an external goal. Teaching for external goals is not functional in the child's development." (Mario Montessori. Education for Human Development. Schocken Books, New York. 1967 page 67)

The traditional paradigm of education and the task-oriented perception of education This task-oriented perception of the environment is reflected in the task-oriented approach to education or 'carrot and stick' approach... first learn the skills... get the education... get the grades and then you can get the job which means money and material comfort. With task-oriented education the individual works towards external goals... learns to depend on motivating devices which are external or 'extrinsic' to the action of learning and study - tests, exams and rewards expressed as grades, scores, grade averages, credentials and diplomas and the promise of future jobs as well as the avoidance of disciplinary measures in the form of low grades and punishment i.e. 'extrinsic motivation'. Extrinsic motivation is motivation by extrinsic rewards. Extrinsic motivation is the same as motivation for learning the best way to satisfy a deficiency of unfulfilled needs... deficiency needs i.e. 'deficiency motivation' or 'deficit-motivation'. The deficiency motivated individual makes repeated attempts to acquire from the outside world satisfactions of their motivational deficiencies... of their deficient needs.

Education is offered in the context of the culture or 'cultural context'. In the context of a capitalist consumer culture the individual learns to perceive... is encouraged to perceive the (social) environment in terms of - what is 'threatening' and what is 'useful'... forms the basis for value system... 'economic values' which replace authentic 'human values'. These economic values of the culture are then translated into educational 'policy'. The perception of the environment is reflected in the task-oriented approach to education or 'carrot and stick' approach... first learn the skills... get the education... get the grades and then you can get the job, the money and the material comfort. The external motivating devices are designed to motivate extrinsically towards goal objects which are external to the activities of study. good grades means college and college education is preparation for a 'good job' which means good money and a comfortable material life. The individual works towards these external goals and learns to depend on motivating devices and rewards which are external or 'extrinsic' to the action of learning and study - tests, exams and rewards expressed as grades, scores, grade averages, credentials and diplomas and promises for the future... i.e. 'extrinsic motivation'. Extrinsic motivation is the same as motivation for learning the best way to satisfy a deficiency of unfulfilled needs... deficiency needs i.e. 'deficiency motivation' or 'deficit-motivation'. The deficiency motivated individual makes repeated attempts to acquire from the outside world satisfactions of their motivational deficiencies.

In the framework of the official pedagogy of the behavioural paradigm, motivation is assumed to be outside or 'extrinsic' to the action of study. The ultimate effect is to alienate the learner from the learning process. The alienation leads to demotivation and disempowerment... decline in motivation and decline in academic standards which is explained away as 'student mediocrity'. Student mediocrity is ultimately derived from the pressure of the demands of administrators. Stalemates and power struggles develop amongst students, teachers and administrations. Teachers are pressured by the demands of administrations for examination results, test scores etc. Both teachers and administrations become concerned with student performance as a reflection of teacher performance rather than as a reflection of student progress. Student results are used to monitor teachers' job performance.Students do not cooperate because they are not encouraged to experience motivation while learning. (Education for Human Development. Mario Montessori. Schocken Books, New York. 1967 Traditional education is education for manipulation and social control. Traditional teaching methods are justified by behavioural science or 'behaviourism'. Emphasis is based on the notion that education is a matter of conditioned learning or 'conditioning'. Conditioning is dysfunctional if it allows the individual to perceive the details but not the whole to see all there is to be seen of the surface features - the sum total of what is apparent and has already materialized.

The human organism is a social organism which depends on fulfillment of human needs... social intelligence... for social adaptability for survival The human organism is a social organism which depends for survival on successful adaptation to changes in the social environment i.e. 'adaptability'. Human adaptability depends on intelligent behaviour based on social adaptation and cooperation i.e 'social intelligence'. Social intelligence is a function of personality development and psychological wholeness... moral consciousness or 'morality'. Morality depends on personality development to spiritual maturity or 'self-actualisation'. Self-actualisation results from psychological wholeness or 'health' i.e. 'wellness'. Psychological wholeness depends on fulfillment of developmental needs - intrinsic capacities, talents, yearnings, preferences and values i.e. motives for human behaviour or 'human needs'. There is a range of human needs which includes the most urgent physiological and psychological needs or 'lower' needs and the less urgent spiritual needs or 'higher' needs.

The range of human needs The basic physiological and psychological needs of the human organism are derived from the biological instinct for self-preservation. They include firstly the 'basic physiological needs' related to the physical needs for survival of the organism and the species - physical needs for safety and development - food, water, warmth, sleep, protection and right conditions for reproduction; secondly the 'basic psychological needs' or 'emotional needs' for security and belongingness which come from parental approval and lead to rational faith in the persistence of the self i.e self-respect or 'self-esteem' - the 'ego needs'; thirdly, the needs for mature growth or 'self-actualisation' - growth needs or 'spiritual needs' for spiritual growth and 'self-transcendance'. Motivations by the different needs - spiritual needs as well the physiological and psychological needs - originate in the instinct for self-preservation. The biologically based human needs are the source of human motivation for learning behaviour i.e. 'intrinsic motivation'.

Human needs must be met for the organism to function fully as a socially intelligent integrated being able to adapt to changing social conditions

The prepotent more urgent basic psychological needs - 'deficiency needs' - ..motivation for the ego needs of self-esteem - 'deficiency motivations' are prerequisite to the metaneeds - the 'growth motivations'. In a cultural environment which focuses on the basic physiological and psychological needs, 'metamotivation' is inhibited by forces external to the individual. The individual in a cultural environment which focuses on the basic needs is deprived of the means for gratification of the 'metaneeds which are repressed ...denied... in an environment in which conditional love is refused.. the environment is feared ...is dreaded... is perceived as a menace to the organism's individuality, development, instinctive strivings to grow for freedom and happiness...basic anxiety develops... the child's free use of energies is thwarted, self-esteem and self-reliance are undermined, fear is instilled by intimidation and isolation, expansiveness is warped through brutality or overprotective 'love'...fear is grounded in reality..

An understanding of human learning behaviour depends on the holistic perspective of the human organism as a social organism i.e. 'human nature'. The nature of any biological organism is a function of the instinctive motivation for learning which leads to adaptive learning and behaviour i.e. 'adaptability'. The human organism is similarly motivated for adaptability. Human adaptability depends on the capacity for initiative and sustained concentration on a specific goal with a view to delayed response i.e. 'intrinsic motivation'. Intrinsic motivation maintains a proper balance between action and restraint and provides the individual with the sense of direction and the energy which they need in their efforts to adapt to changing social conditions. Intrinsic motivation required for adaptation and survival ...

For the human organism, adaptation and survival depends on creative or productive and therefore adaptive behaviour. Human adaptive behaviour is based on the instinctive need to make meaning of the complexity of environmental stimuli... to 'learn'. Learning is a natural function of the 'meaning-maker' or 'brain'. The human brain is a social brain which is specialized for motivation to learn with a view to making accurate evaluations for adaptation to a changing social environment. Social adaptability depends on the capacity for accurate evaluation. Accuracy of evaluation depends on unconscious motivations which indirectly determine the degree of adaptability of thought and behaviour. The natural capacities for inquiring, observing and thinking can be 'critical', or 'uncritical', creative or destructive and the corresponding behaviour which results will be adaptive or non-adaptive depending on the degree of accuracy of evaluation. Inaccurate evaluation produces behaviour which is destructive and 'non-adaptive'. Accurate evaluation produces behaviour which is creative and 'adaptive'. Adaptive behaviour depends on motivation. Motivation is directly related to the problem of adaptation to a changing environment. Motivation is naturally related to compelling interest in exploring or mastering a subject, topic or skill. 'Optimal motivation' or 'metamotivation' is characteristic of the balanced personality and a function of developed 'moral consciousness' or 'conscience'. The conscience is the source of human values required for effective social adaptation.

The human organism is a social organism which depends for survival on successful adaptation to changes in the social environment i.e. 'adaptability'. Human adaptability depends on intelligent behaviour based on social adaptation and cooperation i.e 'social intelligence'. Social intelligence is a function of personality development and psychological wholeness... moral consciousness or 'morality'. Morality depends on spiritual maturity or 'self-actualisation' resulting from psychological wholeness or 'health' i.e. 'wellness'. Psychological wholeness depends on fulfillment of developmental needs - intrinsic capacities, talents, yearnings, preferences and values i.e. motives for human behaviour or 'human needs'.

Human needs are instinctive human motives for behaviour or 'motivations'. Human motivations lie at the subconscious level of brain functioning. Unconscious motivations give rise to emotional forces known as 'deep meanings' or 'drives' of human behaviour i.e. the 'learning emotions'. Deep meanings and drives are at the core of intrinsic motives for behaviour.The subconscious emotions determine the nature of the individual's thinking or 'cognition'. Depending on the nature of the individual's motivation, cognitive activity leads to interpetation and evaluation of the environment and subsequent behaviour or 'action' which can be creative and 'adaptive' or destructive and 'non-adaptive'. Learning emotions provide the sense of direction and the energy required for learning and adapting to changes in the social environment

Human adaptability: the role of unconscious motivation or 'intrinsic motivation'... drive behind process of knowing or 'knowledge' The motivations underlying an individual's actions and behaviour lie in emotional forces at the unconscious level of the human mind - the intrinsic motives for learning or 'intrinsic motivation'. Intrinsic motivation is based on the developmental needs of the human organism - the 'higher psychological needs' or 'spiritual needs' as well as the 'lower psychological needs' or 'ego-needs'. Spiritual needs are needs for spiritual growth or 'maturity' essential for human adaptation to changing social conditions i.e. 'adaptability'.

Human adaptability depends on effective learning driven by 'curiosity', accurate interpretation or 'perception' and correct evaluation or 'critical thought'. Whatever the motivational state, intrinsic motivation is driven by the instinctive need to make meaning of the environment or 'learn'. Learning is the capacity for observation and inquiry (curiosity) which is necessary for the organism to acquire the information, knowledge and understanding upon which it depends for accurate interpretation or 'perception' of the social reality. Curiosity is a function of the attention on the environment for the knowledge which can be derived from it - an instinctive emotion because it is rooted in the instinct for 'self-preservation'.

Perception depends on the individual's thought patterns which can be critical, constructive and accurate (complete cognition of 'holistic perception') or else non-critical, destructive and inaccurate (incomplete cognition of non-holistic perception). Accuracy of perception leads to evaluation of the social reality (accurate or inaccurate) and subsequent behaviour (creative and 'adaptive' or destructive and 'non-adaptive') depending on the extent of completeness behaviour. Behaviour is creative and adaptive or non-creative and non-adaptive depending on the individual's capacity for observation and inquiry or 'critical' thinking. Critical thought patterns produce accurate evaluations and creative or 'adaptive' behaviour. Non-critical thought patterns produce inaccurate evaluations and destructive or 'non-adaptive' behaviour. Adaptability of behaviour which depends on accuracy of evaluation (knowledge) and perception (understanding) ultimately depends on the individual's motivational state which is a function of the individual's unconscious motivations and how they affect the individual's thought patterns - their capacity for 'critical thinking' or 'reason'.

The highest consciousness state - 'transpersonal state' - is the most effective for human responsiveness to change i.e. 'adaptability' The different types of motivation or 'motivational states' depend on the extent to which the human needs have been met in the individual's development. The range of motivational states is a function of the level of personality development or 'mental health'. An individual's mental health depends on the sociocognitive level of moral development or 'morality' i.e. their level of moral consciousness or 'consciousness state'. Fully functioning consciousness of the so-called 'highest consciousness state' is the most effective for human adaptability. Attainment depends on complete personality development which is a function of development of conscience - the human 'soul'. Development of conscience which is required for adaptability of the human organism as a social organism is a function of appropriate education based on the human potential for holistic learning i.e. 'optimalearning'.

"Two stonecutters were engaged in similar activity. Asked what they were doing, one answered "I'm squaring up this block of stone." The other replied, "I'm building a cathedral." The first may have been underemployed; the second was not. Clearly what counts is not so much the work a person does, but what he perceives he is doing it for." (Abraham Maslow. Toward a Psychology of Being. 1968)

Human needs give rise to the different 'learning emotions' "The purest act of cognition relies upon interest from the affective side to energize it. An emotion generated from within the moral sphere will derive its meaning to the individual from the sociocognitive stage of moral development that he is at." (Rosen)

Human needs determine the nature of the different types of motivation or 'motivational types' which give rise to different 'learning emotions'. Motivational type depends on the individual's level of psychological or 'moral development' i.e. 'sociocognitive stage' of 'personality development'. If personality development is thwarted then the individual is motivated by 'negative learning emotions' characteristic of thwarted growth which leads to 'neurotic development' or 'neurosis' - fear, frustration, confusion, disorientation and agony.

If personality development is encouraged then the individual is motivated by the 'positive learning emotions' characteristic of self-actualisation - curiosity, wonder and reverential fear or 'awe'

Natural curiosity is the source of 'intrinsic motivation' for learning. "...It is in fact nothing short of a miracle that the modern methods of instruction have not yet entirely strangled the holy curiosity of inquiry; for this delicate little plant, aside from stimulation, stands mainly in need of freedom; without this it goes to wrack and ruin without fail." (Albert Einstein cited in Carl Rogers. Freedom To Learn. Columbus, Ohio: Charles Merrill Publishing Co. 1969)

"The purest act of cognition relies upon interest from the affective side to energize it. An emotion generated from within the moral sphere will derive its meaning to the individual from the sociocognitive stage of moral development that he is at." (Rosen)

range of instinctive human motives or 'human needs'. Human needs are psychological and spiritual as well as physiological. The physiological needs are those needs which are related to physical growth. Psychological needs are those needs related to psychological growth. They include the 'lower' needs for self-esteem i.e. the 'ego needs' and the 'higher' needs for spiritual growth i.e. the growth needs or 'spiritual needs'. The spiritual needs are related to spiritual growth and transcendance of the ego or 'ego-transcendance'. The lower and higher psychological needs are interrelated. Human needs must be fulfilled for proper growth and development to full human awareness or 'humanness'. The fulfillment of psychological needs is a part of the healthy psychological development required for successful adaptation to changing social conditions i.e. 'social intelligence'. Social intelligence is a function of fully expanded awareness of the growth needs of the value-life... 'social values' of 'humanness' i.e. mature growth or 'self-actualisation'.

Both 'lower' and 'higher' needs are shared by all members of the human species.

There is a range of human needs which vary in terms or urgency or 'prepotency'. Though all human needs are interrelated, there is a hierarchy of needs in terms of urgency or 'prepotency'. The most prepotent are the obvious physiological needs for physical survival, physical security and physical growth... the needs for food, water, clothing, shelter and so on... 'survival needs'. Then there are the psychological needs related to psychological growth... the lower psychological needs and the 'higher' psychological needs the spiritual growth needs or 'metaneeds'.

The 'lower' needs are the 'basic psychological needs' for psychological security and belongingness... self-respect and 'self-esteem - care and affection... i.e. t'security needs' for belongingness and self-esteem or 'ego needs'. The basic psychological needs are the needs for security, belongingness and self-esteem. The most prepotent is the need for freedom from fear and anxiety - the need for safety or 'security'. Security needs include the need to admire an ideal and to strive for perfection. Security is communicated through loving care and a sense of 'belongingness'... parental love i.e. spiritual or 'unconditional love' which communicates the security, approval, respect, esteem and sense of belongingness basic to faith in the persistence of the self, respect and approval of one's identity and expectations of oneself i.e. 'self-respect' or 'self-esteem' - the 'ego needs'. Fulfillment of the ego needs establishes a natural condition of self-identity or 'healthy ego' which is required for normal psychological growth. Satisfaction of the 'basic psychological needs' depends on others for communication of security through 'unconditional love'.

the urgent so-called 'basic psychological needs' or 'ego-needs' for psychological security and belongingness or 'self-esteem - care and affection; less urgent 'higher psychological needs' or 'growth needs' - the 'spiritual needs' (spiritual love, lovingkindness or 'compassion') for 'ego or self-transcendance' i.e. 'metaneeds' for mature growth or 'self-actualisation'. Self-actualisation is not the end of growth... not the path to maturity but the path of maturity.by all members of the human species.

The 'higher' psychological needs for spiritual growth... 'growth needs' or 'spiritual needs' for moral consciousness or 'conscience... needs for spiritual love, lovingkindness or 'compassion'. The 'higher' spiritual needs ('higher' because they are related to consciousness) are motivations for spiritual growth and ego-transcendance. The spiritual needs are also known as 'growth motivations' or 'metaneeds' - from the Greek word 'meta' meaning 'of a higher order'. The metaneeds are the growth needs of natural values of moral consciousness or 'conscience'. They are the intellectual, moral and 'ethical' needs related to the values of truth, goodness, perfection, justice, simplicity, love, compassion and so on taught by religions and philosophies. Each of the metaneeds or 'Being-needs represent different facets of the wholeness of Being. Each can be defined in terms of the others. The metaneeds are related to transcendance of the ego i.e. 'self' or 'ego-transcendance. Metaneeds are the needs for 'spiritual growth as 'normal growth' or 'mature growth' i.e. 'self-actualisation' i.e. 'human values'. The human values are 'social values' of social cooperation or 'socialisation' required for successful adaptation to changing social conditions i.e. 'adaptability'. Human adaptability depends on education for development of the 'spiritual equipment' which combines the understanding of reason with the wisdom of compassion and ensures the connectedness of human beings as social beings i.e. 'creative intelligence' or 'social intelligence'. Satisfaction of the 'higher psychological needs' depends on autonomy and self-reliance.

Human needs must be met during development: role of 'education' Human needs must be fulfilled for proper growth and development to full human awareness or 'humanness'. The fulfillment of psychological needs is a part of the healthy psychological development required for successful adaptation to changing social conditions i.e. 'social intelligence'... depends for survival on social intelligence. Social intelligence is a function of fully expanded awareness of the growth needs of the value-life... 'social values' of 'humanness'. Social intelligence depends on growth motivation based on human needs which are intrinsic to the organism i.e. 'intrinsic motivation'.

During development, each set of needs becomes apparent as the more urgent needs are met and motivations for behaviour shift from a strong expression of motivation of deficiency - 'deficiency motivation' - to the subtle expression of motivation of sufficiency - 'growth motivation'or 'metamotivation'..metamotivation is motivation by the metaneeds... is the most effective type of motivation for adaptation to rapidly changing social conditions... characteristic of the well developed or 'balanced' personality.

Motivation by the growth needs or 'metaneeds': 'metamotivation' the most effective type of motivation for adaptation to rapidly changing social conditions. 'Metamotivation' is motivation by the needs for psychological or spiritual growth i.e. the 'metaneeds'. The metaneeds are the spiritual needs or 'growth needs' of the value-life. They represent an intrinsic part of human nature. A description of the metaneeds is fundamental to the full definition of the human personality or 'human nature'.

"In A Theory of Metamotivation: The Biological Rooting of the Value-Life Abraham Maslow lays out a number of hypotheses about the nature and experience of self-actualizers and self-transcenders. He first describes the hierarchy of needs and suggests that higher needs (metaneeds, being-Values or B-values) for truth, beauty, transcendence, etc. are just as biologically based as are the lower, more obviously physiological ones such as thirst and sex. Further, he proposes that the failure to satisfy metaneeds may result in corresponding forms of pathology (metapathology) analagous to those resulting from unsatisfied lower needs. Thus he concludes that transcendant, religious, esthetic, and philosophical facets of life are as real and intrinsic to human nature as any biological needs". (Walsh 121)

Authentic knowledge is developed through learning which involves the construction and negotiation of meaning or 'dialogue'

Social intelligence is a function of rational negotiation of meaning... 'dialogue' ... 'inner dialogue' or 'contemplation' and 'outer dialogue' as verbal expression and discussion in a process of acquiring knowledge which is valid or 'authentic'.

Knowledge is not finite but changes. Knowledge as 'meaning' is constructed through 'inner dialogue' of contemplation and the meaning is negotiated with others through 'outer dialogue' of discussion.

Biological basis of intrinsic motivation: 'prefrontal lobes' The human organism is a social organism which belongs to the primate order of the human species - knowing man or 'homo sapiens'. One of the most striking features which differentiates homo sapiens from its ancestral species - upright man or 'homo erectus' is the high forehead. The high forehead of homo sapiens is associated with the development of the frontal lobes of the brain. Evolution of the frontal lobes probably occurred rapidly in the Middle Pleistocene era.

The frontal lobes play an important part in the development of balanced personality. Associated with development of the human personality, frontal lobe development is a function of the unique human capacity for 'motivation'. As a unique feature of human personality development, motivation is the characteristically human capacity to perform actions which produce delayed responses and rewards. Motivation is the expression of the capacity for initiative and sustained attention and concentration of one's attention on a goal. As a capacity related to causes of action and motives for behaviour, the human capacity for motivation is required for adaptive behaviour and for survival. The extreme front part of the frontal lobes - the prefontal lobes - is responsible for motivation.

Motivation is an intrinsic function of the development of the prefontal lobes.The prefrontal lobes are responsible for initiative and the maintenance of the proper balance between actions and restraint - sustained attention and the resulting delayed responses and rewards. The proper functioning of the prefrontal lobes is the biological basis for the ability to concentrate for long periods on demanding tasks. It is the basis for the characteristically human ability for productivity or 'work'.

As a function of the development of the prefrontal lobes, motivation is a characteristically human capacity which is necessary for adaptive behaviour and survival of the human organism as a social organism. Human survival depends on the human capacity for motivation. Like any other biological organism, the human organism is intrinsically motivated for behaviour which is adaptive to its environment. The human organism as a social organism is similarly motivated for behaviour which is adaptive to its social environment. Adaptive behaviour depends on the accuracy of the individual's perception of the social environment and on the way in which the individual thinks about it. Accuracy of the individual's knowledge and understanding depends on the unconscious motivations and thought patterns... 'cognitive structures'. The individual's thought patterns determine the accuracy of evaluation which in turn determines the degree of adaptability of behaviour. Human survival depends on the capacity for adaptation to a changing social environment and social adaptability depends on the capacity for motivation and work.

Intrinsic motivation is a function of the individual's unconscious or 'intrinsic' motives for behaviour i.e. 'human needs'.

Mature growth or 'self-actualisation' Self-actualisation involves the harmonisation of psychic forces (such as the 'digestion of memory' as 'storytelling') which frees the individual from the limitations of the 'ego-life' and allows them to live in the spiritual realm of human existence i.e. the realm of 'self-transcendance' or 'being'. Self-actualisation is a function of the unfolding of human 'values for living' - the 'social values' or 'morals' of 'morality' - the moral faculty for accurate evaluation of the social environment... and leads to effective decision-making and successful adaptation i.e. 'social intelligence'. Social intelligence depends on motivation by the metaneeds i.e. 'metamotivation'. Metamotivation is functional in the process of self-actualisation as mature growth and development of 'moral consciousness' or 'conscience'. Development of conscience or 'character' - the human 'soul' - depends on creativity and productivity or 'work'. Through meaningful work, the growth motivated or 'mature' individual is 'self-actualised' or 'self-actualising'.

The self-actualising individual is motivated by the growth needs and lives in the realm of being values of morality or 'ethics' Motivated by the growth needs, their motivation is synonymous with self-actualisation. Their whole being is motivated. Their productivity results from the effects of profound 'being-motivation' or 'metamotivation'. Metamotivation is a function of communion with what transcends the ego and makes it easily possible to live in the realm of the Being-needs of growth. They naturally make choices within the framework of the intrinsic system of human values which are equivalent to the B-needs i.e. the 'Being-values' or B-values ...the 'higher' spiritual values or metaneeds which satisfy the human longing fo freedom, love, certainty wholeness, perfection, truth, justice, aliveness, richness, simplicity, beauty, goodness, uniqueness, self-sufficiency and so on. Living in the realm of the metaneeds self-actualising individuals lead ethical lives. They live by a rational ethical value system - 'rational ethics'. They are responsible to themselves making decisions in their own true interest, and at the same time responsible to others making decisions in the interest of society. They have a genuine desire to be responsible to others, to help others... 'altruism'. Metamotivation contrasts with the control of motivation by deficiency of the basic psychological needs i.e. deficiency or 'deficit motivation'. Deficit motivation is a function of dependence on others as sources of supply for their gratification needs... requires constant adaptability to fit the environment which they perceive as non-reliable and this contributes to their general anxiety, hostility and lack of freedom.

Learning with personal meaning Learning of personal involvement is self-initiated, is pervasive, is evaluated by the learner and has meaning as its essence. "When is one free from tests or other types of institutional press?..... only when one submits oneself to them and rises above them." (41) "Changingness, a reliance on process rather than upon static knowledge, is the only thing that makes sense as a goal for education in the modern world."(104) The facilitation oflearning is the aim of education." (105) "The facilitation of significant learning rests upon certain attitudinal qualities which exist in the personal relationship between the facilitator and the learner."(106) The attitudinal qualities: the most important is 'genuineness,' congruent. - to be real about oneself. He is a vital person, with feelings and convictions. He can be authentic, expressing feelings of enthusiasm, boredom, anger, sensitivity, sympathy - accepting these feelings as his own without needing to impose them on the students; able to share feelings of anger and frustration as well as feelings of sweetness and light. An important attitude: having a basic trust, 'prizing' the learner, his feelings, his opinions, his person; caring without being possessive. "The facilitator's prizing or acceptance of the learner is an operational expression of his essential confidence and trust of the human organism." Another important attitude: 'empathic understanding' - understand what's it is like to in the other's shoes. (157- 165)

The educational process for the child means the instinctive development of his individuality and so must allow for the complete emotional and psychic as well as intellectual maturation into an adult personality with self-determination, self-respect, and self discipline. The educational process becomes effective when a child enjoys learning for learning's sake. He can enjoy learning in the framework of creation which comes from his own powers of imagination and natural curiosity in the world around him. The teacher is a resource and provider of resources. And the educator, whether in the administrative or instructional capacities of school or government, has the very great responsibility of leading students to use their own minds - to learn to think.

"Real freedom is a consequence of development; it is the consequence of latent guides, aided by education. It is the construction of the personality, reached by effort and one's own experiences; it is the long road which every child must take to reach maturity... Development cannot be taught." (Montessori Absorbent Mind)

Human capacity for reason depends on brain development or 'intelligence Human adaptability depends on development of the human organ specialised for processing of information and creation of meaning or 'learning'. Learning is a natural functionof the 'brain'. The human brain is a social brain with the potential capacity for development of the intelligence required for adaptation to changing social conditions i.e. 'social intelligence'. The human capacity for social intelligence depends on optimal functioning of the brain or 'optimalearning'.... a function of 'creative intelligence'.

"Arrested curiosity stays on the plane of interest in local gossip and prying inquisitiveness into other peoples' business". (John Dewey. How We Think: A Restatement of the Relation of Refelective Thinking to the Educative Process. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath and Company , 1933 40)

"Motivation would also be a significant dimension of health. The most widely accepted transpersonal model of motivation owes a great deal to Abraham Maslow.

Self-actualisation as mature growth Self-actualisation is not the end of growth... not the path to maturity but the path of maturity... Self-actualisation involves the harmonisation of psychic forces (such as the 'digestion of memory' as 'storytelling') which frees the individual from the limitations of the 'ego-life' and allows them to live in the spiritual realm - of human existence i.e. the realm of 'ego-transcendance' or 'being'. Self-actualisation is a function of the unfolding of human 'values for living' - the 'social values' or 'morals' of 'morality' - the moral faculty for accurate evaluation of the social environment and leads to effective decision-making and successful adaptation i.e. 'social intelligence'. Social intelligence depends on motivation by the metaneeds i.e. 'metamotivation'. Metamotivation is functional in the process of self-actualisation as mature growth and development of 'moral consciousness' or 'conscience'. Development of conscience or 'character' - the human 'soul' - depends on creativity and productivity or 'work'.

Through meaningful work, the growth motivated or 'mature' individual is 'self-actualised' or 'self-actualising'.

The self-actualising individual is motivated by the growth needs and lives in the realm of being values or 'ethics' Motivated by the growth needs, their motivation is synonymous with self-actualisation. Their whole being is motivated. Their productivity results from the effects of profound 'being-motivation' or 'metamotivation'. Metamotivation is a function of communion with what transcends the ego and makes it easily possible to live in the realm of the Being-needs of growth. They naturally make choices within the framework of the intrinsic system of human values which are equivalent to the B-needs i.e. the 'Being-values' or B-values ...the 'higher' spiritual values or metaneeds which satisfy the human longing fo freedom, love, certainty wholeness, perfection, truth, justice, aliveness, richness, simplicity, beauty, goodness, uniqueness, self-sufficiency and so on. Living in the realm of the metaneeds self-actualising individuals lead ethical lives. They live by a rational ethical value system - 'rational ethics'. They are responsible to themselves making decisions in their own true interest, and at the same time responsible to others making decisions in the interest of society. They have a genuine desire to be responsible to others, to help others... 'altruism'. Metemotivation contrasts with the control of motivation by deficiency of the basic psychological needs i.e. deficiency or 'deficit motivation'.

Deficit motivation is a function of dependence on others as sources of supply for their gratification needs... requires constant adaptability to fit the environment which they perceive as non-reliable and this contributes to their general anxiety, hostility and lack of freedom.

"Arrested curiosity stays on the plane of interest in local gossip and prying inquisitiveness into other peoples' business". (John Dewey. How We Think: A Restatement of the Relation of Refelective Thinking to the Educative Process. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath and Company , 1933 40)

Motivation is a significant dimension of optimal health or 'wellness' The most widely accepted transpersonal model of motivation owes a great deal to Abraham Maslow.

Implications for education... spontaneous interest is crucial for motivation... education for responsibility of freedom... 'discipline' as self-discipline... education for responsibility of freedom... 'discipline' as self-discipline'

In the wholistic paradigm of education, understanding of the learning process is based on the consideration of the learner from a wholistic perspective of the human organism as a social organism... emphasis is placed on the learner's intrinsic motives for learning.

Education for adaptability depends on the understanding of the role of intrinsic motivation in effective learning. Intrinsic motivation is the driving force for creative learning and productive engagement with the environment i.e. ‘work’. Productive work engages the development of the personality through freedom for intrinsically motivated learning or 'meaningful learning'. Meaningful learning is the basis adaptability to the responsibilities of freedom i.e. 'responsible freedom'.

"Discipline is born when the child concentrates his attention on some object that attracts him and which provides him not only with a useful exercise but with a control of error." (Maria Montessori The Absorbent Mind 264)

Responsible freedom depends on education of the whole person i.e. 'holistic education.'

Deficiency motivation and the lack of faith in human potential the basis for manipulation and so-called 'banking education'... 'extrinsic motivation'. Faith in human potential and metamotivation is education for personal growth and freedom. Human potentialities for freedom, love, happiness, reason, justice and so on are like seeds. They are stifled and fail to develop if not given the proper conditions required for development.If not given the proper conditions. Education for freedom - 'holistic education' - engages the metaneeds for spiritual growth as well as the basic psychological needs for security and self esteem. Faith in human potential and metamotivation is education for personal growth and freedom.

Traditional teaching methods effectively ruin the crucial factor for motivation towards effective learning and that is the individual's spontaneous interest. Ignorance of the validity of spontaneous interest results in the failure to recognize the learning potential of intrinsic motivation. Failure to acknowledge the potential of intrinsic motivation creates a gap between knowledge and personal growth. Since complete growth of the individual involves emotional, psychological and moral development as well as intellectual achievement, the failure to validate the individual's spontaneous interest leads to incompetence and incapacity.

Teaching techniques which emphasize extrinsic motivation are ineffective in bringing about meaningful learning if they do not engage personality growth and development to self-actualisation. Growth to self-actualisation depends on work and study which is driven by intrinsic motivation and therefore involved in the inner construction of conscience. Developed conscience is an emegent property of the organ of learning or 'brain'. Teaching to the brain's rules for learning - 'brain-based learning' - engages the natural functioning of intrinsic motivation - optimallearning' - which is functional in growth and development or conscience. Development of conscience depends on a learning environment of freedom, empowerment and the facilitation of learning. The teacher's role is defined as 'facilitator'. The facilitative teacher uses the power of example rather than direction and their effectiveness depends on appropriate personal characteristics or ‘attributes’ as well as education or ‘teacher training’.

Responsible freedom depends on education of the whole person i.e. 'holistic education.'

The emotional forces of intrinsic motivation are the unconscious 'drives' which provide the individual with the sense of direction and the energy needed to carry out the tasks of living i.e. 'felt meanings' or 'deep meanings'. Deep meanings function as organizers of life experience. They determine the individual's way of perceiving the world... their way of organizing their own world and their own life. They describe the focal points around which thoughts and ideas are organized... they 'seed' the individual's thinking in the same way that a fragment of grit seeds the formation of a pearl in the oyster. They can be likened to 'thematic attractors' of the new 'science of complexity'. Access to the power of deep meanings of the unconscious gives people the direction and the power with which they perceive the work they do... their passions and their accomplishments.

The extent to which the conscience is developed determines the individual's value system and the corresponding type of motivation or 'motivational type'.

The different types of motivation (motivational type) depend on the level of personality development The motivational type or 'personality type' is determined by the extent to which the individual's human needs are met. The different types of motivation depend on the individual's level of psychological, intellectual and moral development i.e. 'sociocognitive stage'. The type of motivation is a dimension of personality development or 'mental health'. Mental health and personal development depends on the environmental conditions of 'education' which are offered to meet the range of human needs. Human needs which lie in the unconscious level of the mind extend from basic needs of survival and security through ego-needs of self-esteem and belongingness to spiritual needs of 'self-actualization' and 'ego-transcendance'. As needs are satisfied on the different levels, motives for behaviour shift from strong to subtle and from expressions of deficiency to expressions of sufficiency. As one level of needs is satisfied, the next level becomes apparent. Needs at the 'higher' end of the scale are the 'spiritual needs' or 'metaneeds'. Motivation by the metaneeds is 'motivation of sufficiency' or 'metamotivation'. Motivation by deficiency of the ego needs is 'motivation of deficiency' or 'deficit motivation'. The deficiency motivated individual perceives reality in terms of mutually exclusive classes and concepts or 'dichotomies' - male/female, selfish/unselfish, adult/child, kind/cruel, good/bad and so on while the self-actualised individual has a perspective of reality in terms of the relatedness of parts and wholes i.e. 'holistic perception'.

Motivational type determines individual's perception of reality and the way in which they think about it... their 'worldview'.

The widely accepted transpersonal model of motivation is based on the work of Abraham Maslow and his theory of the 'hierarchy of needs' which ranges from basic survival through security, sense of belongingness, self-esteem, to expression of potentiality or 'self-actualization'. In the hierarchical organization of needs, instinctive motives are manifest sequentially during development according to the extent of urgency or 'prepotency'. As one level of needs is satisfied, the next level becomes apparent... motives shift from strong to subtle, and from expressions of deficiency to expressions of sufficiency. The needs at the higher end of this scale of sufficiency are the spiritual needs or 'metaneeds'. Motivation by the metaneeds is 'metamotivation.' Metamotivation is a significant dimension of optimal health or 'wellness'...

It is possible to resolve the problem of motivation with an understanding of education which is based on insights of human biology - the neurosciences, psychobiology and human psychology. Human motivation is a function of human personality development which in turn is a function of learning as a function of mature personal growth or 'self-actualisation' i.e. 'learning from experience... 'experiential learning' or 'meaningful learning'.

"The problem of motivation is at the heart of the teaching crisis in the States" (Paulo Freire)

What is the 'problem of motivation' The so-called 'problem of motivation' is a problem of the inability to adapt to changes in the environment... a problem of 'inadaptability' In the context of education... the 'problem of motivation' refers to the decline in motivation resulting from the imposition of non-meaningful learning and student passivity. The passive role of the student is the cause of declining motivation which is at the root of the so-called 'educational crisis'. It is the problem of motivation which puts into question the hierarchical and mechanical methodology of the traditional paradigm of education. Schools are faced with a dilemma: how motivate students to work within the framework of the officially controlled instruction? What kind of instruction can be offered within the framework of a curriculum which meets the 'needs of society' and at the same time respects the learner's natural motivation for learning?

The problem of motivation is related to 'values of capitalism'... culture of consumerism depends on education which engages motivation of deficiency... 'deficit motivation' The culture of consumerism depends on education which engages motivation by deficiency of needs or 'deficit motivation'... and its characteristically dichotomous perception of reality. In the traditional paradigm of task-oriented education - education as instruction - requirements are set for meeting the 'needs of society'. The accepted form of motivation is reflected in the carrot and stick approach to pedagogy - first learn the skills and get the education, then you can get the job. Good grades mean a good education, good education means a good job and a good job means good money and material comfort or 'happiness'. This is the official pedagogy which engages motivation for external goals or 'extrinsic motivation'

Motivation by extrinsic goals rewards... : 'extrinsic motivation' (intrinsically motivated to depend for continued motivation on extrinsic goals)

In the behavioural paradigm of traditional ed