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                        AMERICAN CULTURE AND POLITICAL FUNCTION OF EDUCATION 

 theme: Education in context of cultural beliefs and cultural values i.e 'cultural context'.  American politics and ideals interfere with the aim of education of children which is the complete development of their humanity (mature personality and moral character) so they become autonomous and responsible human beings who know how to live to the fullest, maintaining their desire for learning in order to be able to adapt to a continually changing society and a changing world. Political aims and ideals of the adults in the society interfere with the basic aim of education for the child.

American Constitution  Adam Smith and laissez-faire economics...   adult immaturity...   capitalism...  marketing character orientation...

The practice of American education has been profoundly influenced by the American worldview, and its characteristically hostile attitude toward nature and human nature. (Miller, Ron. (1990) What Are Schools For? Holistic Education in American Culture. Holistic Education Press. Brandon Vermont. Chapter 1, Themes of American Culture. Chapter 1, Themes of American Culture.) Derived from orthodox Protestantism and its emphasis on religious texts and creeds, the American moralistic worldview has stressed the importance of authorities in dealing with educational practices.

 "The American educational system is based on a set of assumptions which are rooted in the belief systems of American culture. Their historical origins stem from the rejection of the idea that people deserve a better life because they are better 'educated'. Their version of American 'nationalism' is based on ideals of 'democracy' and 'equality' as 'equal opportunity for all.' Their traditional aversion to elitisim and aristocracy accounts for their characteristic suspicion for so-called 'serious education'. Understanding the power of education to change existing power arrangements, they have avoided discussion of the wider issues of educational philosophy". (Illich Deschooling Society 7)

 "The American economy has never been interested in the whole human being but only in those aspects of his nature from which some monetary profit can be derived... An individual might be important to the system as a worker - a person who could be hired to make certain motions of his hands that would contribute to the production of sable goods. He might be important as a consumer - a person who could be be important as an investor - a person with surplus money that could be 'hired' to work for a corporation. He might be important as an inventor, possessor of know-how, ambitions, a 'name' , and so on - all things which could be converted into programs for spending, things or qualities considred as 'marketable.' Man's 'humanity' - his growth to full maturity has held slight interest for the economy... For him to grow into full maturity might mean that he would have rich inner resources with which to entertain himself; and that he would be unsusceptible to those competitive prestige appeals that are the delight of advertisers; and that he would feel a deep insistent concern about the rights of the dispossessed; for him to grow into such full maturity would, therefore, make him far less valuable as a source of profit-making than he is in his adult immaturity." (Harry llen Overstreet The Mature Mind p178)  

  American education in context of dichotomous view of human nature as reflected in the American Constitution and its philosophy of balanced 'government'

 "From a humanistic standpoint there is a serious dilemma in the philosophy of the Fathers, which derives from their conception of man. They thought man was a  creature of rapacious self-interest, and yet they wanted him to be free -  (Photo: Dr.Martin Luther King)  free in essence, to contend, to engage in an umpired strife, to use property to get property. They accepted the mercantile image of life as an eternal battleground, and assumed the Hobbesian war of each against all; they did not propose to put an end to this war, but merely to stabilize it and make it less murderous. They had no hope and they offered none for any ultimate organic change in the way men conduct themselves. The result was that while they thought self-interest the most dangerous and unbrookable quality of man, they necessarily underwrote it in trying to control it. They succeeded in both respects: under the competitive capitalism of the nineteenth century America continued to be an arena for various grasping and contending interests, and the federal government continued to provide a stable and acceptable medium within which they could contend; further it usually showed the wholesome bias on behalf of property which the Fathers expected. But no man who is as well abreast of modern science as the Fathers were of eighteenth science, believes any longer in unchanging human nature. Modern humanistic thinkers who seek for a means by which society may transcend eternal conflict and rigid adherence to property rights as its integrating principles can expect no answer in the philosophy of balanced governmment as it was set down by the Constitution-makers of 1787". (Richard Hofstadter 'The Founding Fathers: An Age of Realism' in Horowitz, R.H. (Ed) The Moral Foundations of the American Republic. Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Ocegnia? 1986 p. 73) 

Internal logic of the Constitution based on the false premise of egocentric self-interest as characteristic of human nature (dichotomus view)... The value system of the American nation was founded on the ideas of John Locke.

 "Hobbes and Locke refuted Descartes' concept of innate ideas and maintained that there was nothing in the mind that was not first in the senses. At birth, the human mind was, in Locke's famous phrase, a 'tabula rasa', a blank tablet upon which ideas were imprinted through sensory perceptions. This notion served as the starting point for the mechanistic theory of knowledge, in which sensations were the basic elements of the mental realm and were combined into more complex structures by the process of association." 67)  Applying Newtonian mechanics to the sciences of human nature and human society, "Locke developed an atomistic view of society, describing it in terms of its basic building block, the human being. ...he attempted to reduce the patterns observed in society to the behavior of its individuals. (69) ...Locke's analysis of human behavior was based on that of an earlier philosopher, Thomas Hobbes, who had declared that all knowledge was based on sensory perception. ...Locke compared the human mind at birth to a 'tabula rasa', a completely blank tablet on which knowledge is printed once it is acquired through sensory experience.... the mind is like a blank page and experience writes on it... According to Locke, 'natural laws ' were those which existed before any government was formed. Natural laws included the freedom and equality of all individuals as well as the right to property, which represented the fruit of one's labor. Locke's ideas became the basis for the value system of the Enlightenment and had a strong influence on the develoment of modern economic and political thought. The ideals of individualism, property rights, free markets, and representative government, all of which can be traced back to Locke, contributed significantly to the thinking of Thomas Jefferson and are reflected in the Declaration of Independence and the American Constitution.(Capra The Turning Point 67 - 69)

 Belief in the individual's innate evil nature is derived from the notion that human existence involves separate material and spiritual realms... that the 'natural' and 'supernatural', the person and 'God', are disconnected. This conceptual dichotomy between matter and spirit was incorporated in the 'scientific' worldview which originated with the scientific revolution of the eighteenth century's so-called 'Enlightenment.' The scientific worldview emphasized the cause and effect relationships of the material world. Natural events were thought to be governed by observable natural laws. Human nature was thought to be explainable in terms of natural causes. This more optimistic perception of human nature had a profound influence on social and political thought. The American founding fathers envisioned a humane and democratic society attainable through a rational scientific understanding of human nature. Advocating a 'natural rights philosophy,' they believed that each individual has 'unalienable' God-given rights.

Locke's ideas contributed significantly to the thinking of Thomas Jefferson and are reflected in the Declaration of Independence and the American Constitution of 1787.

The values of the eighteenth century Enlightenment had a profound influence on the development of modern economic and political thought.

The makers of the Constitution - the American 'founding fathers' -  envisioned a humane and democratic society which was attainable through a rational understanding of human nature ... They believed that the success of the American republic was dependent on the intellectual self-reliance of its citizens and therefore promoted free speech and free press. 

The internal logic of the Constitution is based on the false premise inherent in a dichotomous perception of the nature of the human personality or 'human nature'. The founding fathers adopted the view of Thomas Hobbes that the human being is a naturally dangerous 'creature of rapacious self-interest'. Hobbes invented the notion of 'social Darwinism'. They believed that even so in accordance with natural 'laws', all human individuals have equal 'natural rights'... 'unalienable God-given rights'... to the 'freedom' to engage in .... to contend and to fight in the battle... supervised conflict... to use property to get more property... of 'competitive capitalism' (see meanings of 'equality' and 'freedom'in this context). Yet the natural rights to this kind of 'freedom' and 'equality' should be subject to control. They believed that the means to peoples' freedom to pursue their needs of 'rapacious self-interest' wasthrough the laws of 'balanced government'). This line of reasoning describes the characterisic motivation by deficiency of human needs for security and self-esteem - the 'ego needs' i.e. 'deficit-motivation'. Deficit motivation is not to be confused with the natural yearnings of human nature for the value-life... metamotivation for self-realisation or 'self-actualisation'... Self-actualisation depends on freedom as 'freedom of conscience' or 'true freedom'... 'inner freedom'.

Dichotomous perception of human nature in the American Constitution The belief in the individual's innate evil nature is derived from the notion that human existence involves separate material and spiritual realms. The 'natural' and 'supernatural', the person and 'God', are disconnected. This conceptual dichotomy between matter and spirit was incorporated into the 'scientific' worldview which originated with the scientific revolution of the eighteenth century's so-called 'Enlightenment which had its roots in orthodox Protestantism. The scientific worldview had a more optimistic perception of human nature which had a profound influence on social and political thought.

 When the American founding fathers framed the American Constitution, they envisioned a humane and democratic society attainable through a rational scientific understanding of human nature. Their belief in God-given 'unalienable' rights produced a 'natural rights philosophy' in spite of their basic mistrust of human nature. Consequently they set up institutions for controlling and suppressing the human instincts which were not trustworthy. The result of their dichotomous perception of human nature is the perception of so-called 'moral dichotomies' and 'dilemmas'. The concern for the 'good life' as an issue of philosophy and religion leads to a so-called moral dilemma - how to reconcile the freedom of the individual with responsibility to the society.

 The dichotomous view of human nature is the source of confusion about 'moral education' ... see 'problem of ethics' in the 'traditional paradigm'... 'moral development' in terms of 'sociocognitive stages' in the 'holistic paradigm'..

They advocated their 'natural rights philosophy' together with a system of checks and balances as the basis for the Constitution.

Natural rights philosophy The American founding fathers advocated a 'natural rights philosophy'. They envisioned a humane and democratic society which could be attained through a rational scientific understanding of human nature. They incorporated into the American Constitution their belief in the individual's 'inalienable God-given rights'. In addition, each individual was expected to obey the authority of strict codes of civil law, ethical standards and social mores. Each individual was to have the moral responsibility for restraining and controlling their own naturally evil impulses. Those who were unable to do so were to be punished. It was believed that the suppression of the evil forces constituted 'virtue' and that virtuous people suppress their inherently evil nature. Those individuals who could abide by the codes of ethical behavior were considered to be moral and had the right to teach the moral life.

Balanced federal government to control freedom  With a natural rights philosophy to accomodate their dichotomous view of human nature, the makers of the Constitution founded a 'balanced federal government' with a bias for property... The purpose was to provide a stable medium within which individuals could compete for property with property..;  They accepted the Hobbesian war of each against all and assumed that life was an endless battleground. They did not propose  or even hope to put an end to this war. They only wanted to stabilize it and keep it under control. They offered no hope for any ultimate organic change in human behaviour. They made no provisions for people who were able to change their behaviour. As a result, even though they thought that self-interest was a very dangerous aspect of human behaviour, in trying to control it they necessarily supported it. They were able to succeed on both counts.

Nineteenth century  During the nineteenth century, the American nation continued to operate in the framework of competitive capitalism. The federal government continued to provide a stable and acceptable medium within which the various grasping and contending interests could contend. Furthermore it usually showed the bias for property which was predicted by the founding fathers.

Modern humanistic thinkers are looking for ways to transcend the endless conflict and the rigid adherence to property rights as integrating principles in the philosophy of balanced government as it was set down in 1787 by the makers of the American Constitution. The false notion of freedom as pursuit of self-centered self-interest... ambitions, leisures... leads to disorder, confusion, conflict which need to be resolved with laws and restrictions to limit the damage. As a result nobody is free because everybody’s life is circumscribed by the negative consequences of everyone else pursuing self-interest. It is people’s desires and images... a product of their conditioning... which are motivating them and such motivation is the expression of the lack of freedom... not liberating.

 Holistic perception of human nature  From the standpoint of a 'holistic perception' of the human individual, there is a serious dilemma in the philosophy of the Constitution which is derived from the dichotomous perception of human nature.

 Implications for education  Human nature is potentially good. The actualisation of the potential for goodness is 'self-actualisation . Self-actualisation is a function of development of moral consciousness or 'conscience'. Development of conscience depends on education which provides the right conditions for growth education i.e. education for the whole person or 'holistic education'. The absence of right conditions for growth results in 'neurotic development' or 'neurosis'. Neurosis is the source of destructive behaviour (including 'rapacious self-interest') i.e. human wickedness or 'evil'.

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References:  Ronald Gross, 1991. Peak Learning: Skills for Today and Tomorrow. Los Angeles: Tarcher

Capra, Fritjof. The Turning Point

 Hofstadter, Richard. 'The Founding Fathers: An Age of Realism' in Horowitz, R.H. (Ed) The Moral Foundations of the American Republic. Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Ocegnia? 1986

a. Perception of 'reality' as level of consciousness. b. individual in cultural context c. Protestantism, moralism, capitalism d. consumer society and packaging of values

 Political function of education: Education for domination... Education as expression of power and politics A. power as a form of domination : a. power as mystification (mythification) of reality: propaganda a. 'banking' education as cultivation rrational thinking... declining motivation e. social myth: myths of schooling c. Authoritarianism and licence d. student-teacher 'contradiction' f. 'education industry' declining motivation... growing up in American culture: cultural implications of failure in sucess oriented culture 'growing up absurd' g. 'reform' as aggravation / continuation of the 'crisis'

  "There is no such thing as a neutral educational process. Education functions either as an instrument which is used to facilitate the integration of the younger generation into the logic of the present system and bring about conformity to it, or it becomes the 'practice of freedom,' the means by which men and women deal critically and creatively with reality and discover how to participate in the transformation of their world. The development of an educational methodology that facilitates this process will inevitably lead to tension and conflict within our society. But it could also contribute to the formation of a new man and mark the beginning of a new era in Western history." Richard Schaull introduction to Paulo Freire Pedagogy of the Oppressed Herder and Herder, 1971 (original Portuguese manuscript 1968, translated by Myra Bergman Ramos p.15)  

 Misinterpretation of Puritan ethics:

 "Puritan ethics, with the emphasis on work and success as evidence of goodness, supported the feeling of security and tended to give life meaning and a religious sense of fulfillment." (Man For Himself, Fromm 81)

Work and success is evidence of goodness only if it is coupled with completeness of personality development... conscience... human values... 

'capitalism'...  values of capitalism...   'marketing character orientation'...  'constitution'...   'adult immaturity'... ..

CONCEPT OF FREEDOM The concept of ''freedom' is usually considered in terms of 'freedom of choice', 'free will' etc.  The use of the word 'freedom' in American culture refers to freedom of choice which is not the same as inner freedom. The word freedom is used as political propaganda in the interests of capitalism which depends on people's attention on the choice of products which they can buy in the consumer society.

"The ideas of freedom and democracy deteriorate into nothing but irrational faith once they are not based upon the productive experience of each individual but are resented to him by parties and states which force him to believe in these ideas." (Man For Himself p. 210)

FREEDOM AS INNER FREEDOM OR FREEDOM OF THOUGHT True freedom of thought is not a question of will but of observation and contemplation.(23) With observation and contemplation the 'mind' 'sees' connections and relationships. Wholistic thinking is observing and contemplating - thinking - seeing connections between the parts and how they relate to the whole. Observation and contemplation constitute free thinking. Used in the context of education, 'freedom' means freedom of thought.

 In American schools, freedom of thought is not encouraged. People are given choices and made to think they are 'free' to choose. "Freedom to think is necessary for growth and development of personality and intelligence". (Erich Fromm Man For Himself)

 INDIVIDUAL IN CULTURAL CONTEXT: GENERAL REMARKS For the human individual the nature of the cultural environment is determined by the cultural values and belief systems. Stimuli from the cultural environment involve the basic assumptions underlying the values of the culture. The cultural belief systems are a product of the history of the culture. The cultural history forms the basis of the forms the basis of the cultural consciousness. The cultural consciousness is the source of the peripheral stimuli processed subconsciously by the individual in a cultural context. The individual's thought and behavior patterns are influenced by the subconsciously processed peripheral stimuli from the cultural environment. Unconsciously perceived and processed by the brain, peripheral stimuli from the cultural environment are inherent in the so-called 'cultural consciousness.' The learning process combines the processing of environental peripheral stimuli with conscious thought processes involved in cognition. The educational process for the individual within a cultural context involves conscious thought patterns in the framework of unconsciously processed environmental stimuli of the cultural consciousness.

 As a mode of relatedness, the productive character orientation "covers mental, emotional and sensory responses to others, to oneself and to things." (Fromm Man For Himself 84)

AMERICAN CULTURE POLITICAL HISTORY See Vygotsky and Engels Human 'needs' 

 Education is a function of culture. Growth of the individual depends on the extent to which the culture facilitates the growth process. In the American culture, the individual must struggle to grow in the context of the values of capitalism.

So-called 'American values' are abstract ideals derived from Protestantism, scientific reductionism, democracy, capitalism: individual freedom, self-reliance, equality of opportunity, hard work, material wealth, competition... These are biologically primed human values.

"The American worldview is based on a number of concepts with which Americans have formulated their own particular form of 'nationalism.' Their 'nation' is identified with a set of abstract ideals derived from Protestantism, scientific reductionism, democracy and capitalism. Since its inception, Americans have believed that their form of nationalism offers the best example for the rest of humanity to follow. With defensive aggression, they have mistrusted other peoples and other cultures. They have mistrusted the natural human behaviour of the natural human being. They have mistrusted human nature itself....." (Miller What Are Schools For?)

 Individual in context of American culture: 'happiness' and capitalism: In spite of all the emphasis put upon man's happiness, individuality and self-interest, capitalistic economic theories of modern technological society have taught people that the aim of life is the successful fulfillment of their duty to work. They are made to believe that it is in their interest to work for money, prestige, and power. They become unaware of the fact that it is in their 'real' self-interest to live in harmony with themselves and their fellow human beings. As a result of the demands of the system, ethical norms are formulated on the premise that man is powerless and insignificant. People are persuaded to make value judgements on the basis of material success rather than faith in human dignity and courage. Bewildered by the moral confusion of this irrational value system, they become easy prey to its demands and are influenced by the enthusiasm of political leaders. 

 "Traditionally, throughout the history of philosophy, theology, psychology, natural desires have been considered annoying and even threatening....Theologians , political philosophers and economic theorists have conceived of various strategies to remove, deny or avoid peoples' unwanted desires and needs. People's happiness has been considered in terms of improving their conditions with a view to eliminating their needs." (Maslow Toward a Psychology of Being 28)

"There has been a special tendency in Western culture, historically determined, to assure that these instinctoid needs of the human being, his so-called animal nature, are base and evil. As a consequence, many cultural institutions are set up for the express purpose of controlling, inhibiting, suppressing and repressing this original nature of man." (Maslow Psychology of Being 164)

The basic premise of American culture is that the 'instinctoid needs of the human being are evil'.

 'natural yearnings of human nature'  

 The economy of the culture encourages immaturity on two counts. First, it discourages the fulfillment of the natural capacities of human nature. "It discourages man from using to the limit his human capacity for foresight and over-all planning." "Through its advertising, it has persistently tried to make immediate temptation so irresistable that the individual will spend what he has - even though this may mean the diversion of his funds from more important ends. Through its structure of credit buying and installment buying, it has persistently encouraged families to accept the illusion that large payments are small - thus persuading them to mortgage their futures. The image of man as a "good consmer" is often more compatible with that of man as a perpetual impulsive child than with that of man as a mature being of foresight and responsibility." Second, the economy fosters mental dishonesty. The notion of 'free enterprise' has popular appeal, especially for those who intend to control the market through monopolies. They utilize the notion of 'government interference' to make profits in the form of 'protective tariffs.' American civilization is not a human civilizaiton. It is a 'business civilization.' (Overstreet 179)

The American economy has never been interested in the whole human being but only in those aspects of his nature from which some monetary profit can be derived (Overstreet 177) An individual might be important to the system as a worker - a person who could be hired to make certain motions of his hands that would contribute to the production of sable goods. He might be important as a consumer - a person who could be be important as an investor - a person with surplus money that could be 'hired' to work for a corporation. He might be important as an inventor, possessor of know-how, ambitions, a 'name' , and so on - all things which could be converted into programs for spending, things or qualities considred as 'marketable.' Man's 'humanity' - his growth to full maturity has held slight interest for the economy. "For him to grow into full maturity might mean that he would have rich inner resources with which to entertain himself; and that he would be unsusceptible to those competitive prestige appeals that are the delight of advertisers; and that he would feel a deep insistent concern about the rights of the dispossessed; for him to grow into such full maturity would, therefore, make him far less valuable as a source of profit-making than he is in his adult immaturity." (Overstreet 178)

Dependent on the 'business ethics' of the business civilization, educational institutions prevent the individual's personal and psycholgical growth to maturity. Few individuals become mature in a culture which makes 'common sense' out of mental dishonesty.

 "...deception and hypocrisy are neither absolute evils that virtuous men suppress to a minimum level nor residual animal traits waiting to be erased by further social evolution. They are very human devices for conducting the complex daily business of social life. The level in each particular society may represent a compromise that reflects the size and complexity of the society. If the level is too low, others will seize the advantage and win. If it is too high, ostracism is the result. Complete honesty on all sides is not the answer. The old primate frankness would destroy the delicate fabric of social life that has built up in human populations beyond the limits of the immediate clan. As Louis J. Halle correctly observes, good manners have become a substitute for love." (Edward Wilson. Sociobiology 553)

Conflicts inherent in the culture produce effects which are relevant to the problem of maturity of the individual in the American culture. The individual is a divided self, with doubts, fears and inner tensions manifest in the 'mentl illness, violence, crime, alcoholism, drug addiction, anxieties, prejudice, etc.

Conditioning influences of the culture are conflicting. Cultural conflicts include the faith in education and contempt for educated people, apathy and driving ambition, etc.

When there is a lack of wholeness in the conditioning influences, the individual cannot grow into a psychologically whole, mature human being.

 The individual is a compartmentalized self, trying to harmonize the various 'selves' of his experience - the domestic self, the business self - the religious self, the political self etc. all housed in one physical self. In the face of the cultural conflicts, the compartmentalized and divided self has difficulty maturing into a psychologically whole human being.

In the face of the cultural conflicts, the compartmentalized and divided self has difficulty maturing...

 The individual has difficulty building sound linkages of responsibility with the world when education in the cultural atmosphere is both exalted and despised. It is difficult for a child to grow to maturity in a culture in which "the natural hazards of life are vastly multiplied by the confusions of the culture and in which he faces an abnormal temptation to remain dependent and irresponsible... where the same two parents send him to school, want him to bring home grades they can view with pride, talk about the inmpracticality of what is learned in school, admire people less for what they know than for what they own, and make it clear that teachers are nobodies compared with business men and movie stars." (Overstreet. 141)

'Adjustment' to the 'society' is the cause for neuroses which result from the unsuitability of humanness in a materialistic society. Intrinsic human values are not valued in a society which measures the individual in terms of material success. Focusing on the demands for adjustment to capitalism, the individual loses sight of his own inrinsic values which make him human. To prevent people from realizing they are being used, they are told that their society is a 'democracy'. Furthermore, they must 'protect' other democracies when they are useful to the capitalists. People's attention is diverted from the discrepancies of the 'higher' value life by having them focus their attenton on issues concerned with the 'lower' values. People are made to focus their attention on the 'lower' physiological needs - sex and food - and the 'lower' psychological needs - belongingness, safety and health. Conflicts inherent in the culture produce effects which are relevant to the problem of maturity of the individual in the American culture.

Confusion of values makes for a sense of personal bewilderment and helplessness; the average individual gets what happiness he can out of doing what everybody else does. To 'survive', the individual has to accept the cultural norms. Adult immaturity is an accepted cultural norm. The philosphical tradition of intellectual and social liberalism requires that the individual grows up into full psycholigal maturity. The traditions of political and religious authoritarianism (dogma of man as a child of sin) do not require the individual's psychological maturity and in fact depend on the individual's psychological immaturity. The inherent cultural confusion comes from the competition of the two conflicting philosophies: rational liberalism and antirational materialsm. "Authoritative religion might want man to remain a child in his obedience and dependence, whie nineteenth century antirationalism might want him to remain a child in egocentric aggrandizement; but in an emergency the two would accurately feel that they had more in common than either with a philosophy that asked man to put his childhood behind him and to achieve the spirital independence of meturity." (142) The major institutions of the society are divided selves and not whole selves. Their influence on the individual is not one which produces wholeness of character. The institution of 'education' embodies and encourages the individual's fixation in immaturity. The American economy has never been interested din the whole human being but obnly in those aspects of his nature from which some monetary profit can be derived (Overstreet 177) An individual might be important to the system as a worker - a person who could be hired to make certain motions of his hands that would contribute to the production of sable goods. He might be important as a consumer - a person who could be be important as a a investor- a person with surplus money that could be 'hired'to work for a corporation. He might be important as an inventor, possessor of know-how, ambitions, a 'name' , and so on - all things which could be converted into programs for spending, things or qualitiies considred as 'marketable.' Man's 'humanity' - his growth to full maturity has held slight interest for the economy. "For him to grow into full maturity might mean that he would have rich inner resources with which to entertain himself; and that he would be unsusceptible to those competitive prestige appeals that are the delight of advertisers; and that he would feel a deep insistent concern about the rights of the dispossessed;. For him to grow into such full maturity would, therefore, make him far less valuable as a source of profit-making than he is in his adult immaturity." (178)

People are bewildered by the moral confusion of an irrational value system. As the result of a capitalist economic system, ethical norms are formulated on the premise that man is powerless and insignificant. People are influenced by the power of political leaders and become easy prey to the demands of a technological society. Without faith in the human capacity for dignity and courage, they are persuaded to make value judgements on the basis of material success.

American culture: education industry', consumer society and packaging of values, myths of schooling

"In the American capitalistic society and culture, people generally relate to each other from the perspective of a market character orientation. Combined with the deemphasis on individuality nd the need to conform is the emphasis on the initiative and self-responsibnility. The result is a feeling of helplessness, cause for the individual's subtly receptive attitudes towards 'experts' and 'public opinion' to tell him how to do things and how to think". (Fromm Man For Himself)

AMERICAN CULTURE and CONCEPT OF ECONOMIC MAN: ADAM SMITH'S PHILOSOPHY AND MISINTERPRETATION OF DARWIN Adam Smith's economic theories "cut the bonds of mutual responsibility between man and man" Darwin's phrase 'survival of the fittest' was used to signify that man proves his fitness by amassing wealth and running his competitors out of business. Also, sympathy spent on victims of the economic struggle was sympathy wasted: such victims were Nature's 'unfit'. (Fromm ?130) "The concept of 'economic man' not only pitted one individual against another, each absorbed in his own self-interest, but fostered yet another type of human fragmentation: it set one phase of man's nature against other phases. Economic advantage became something that could be pursued by means not subject to supervision by religion or ethics. Thus the life of the individual was divided into compartments with such sound proof walls between them that a person in his role as 'religious man', 'civic man' or 'domestic man' could not even hear what he said in his role as 'economic man'. Not only were men divided against themselves, but man was divided against himself". (Fromm ? 130)

 ETHICS IN AMERICAN CULTURE   AS CODES OF BEHAVIOUR: AUTHORITARIAN ETHICS AND THE ANONYMOUS AUTHORITY OF THE 'MARKET'... 'relativistic ethics'. In American society and in the schools, there is a pervasive mistrust which originates from the fear of control by seduction (commercialism, advertising, false values, money prestige, desire for glory etc.) The pervading mistrust is translated into negativity, cynicism and hostility stunting sound psychic development. Stunted psychic growth leads to weakness. People become more vulnerable to tactics and strategies to control them for personal gain. ?...and the 'higher values' of humankind.

 A currriculum allowing for expression of individuality in the context of the traditional content would constitute a compromise for the pragmatists and the traditionalists. Such a curriculum would provide our children with those experiences of learning which are necessary for their individual personal and intellectual growth as well as for their acquisition of the core of cultural knowledge necessary for their adjustment to the traditions of their society. All educationists with their diverse experiences and philosophies of educational methodology, presumably would agree that the primary aim of education is mature cultural literacy. Educationists should be able to join forces in devising a curriculum to promote cultural literacy as the most valuable asset of the citizens of a democratic society." (Hirsch Cultural Literacy Chapter 5)

So-called 'moral eduction' as 'teaching of ethics':

ON LEARNING AND PERSONALITY CHANGE IN AMERICAN CULTURE "So-called learning theory in this country has based itselfalmost entirely on deficit-motivation with goal objects usually external to the organism, i.e. learning the best way to satisfy a need. For this reason among others, our psychology of learning is a limited body of knowledge, useful only in small areas of life and of real interest only to other 'learning theorists'. This is of little help in solving the problem of growth and self-actualization." (Maslow Toward a Psychology of Being)

Hostile attitude toward nature and human nature "The practice of American education has been profoundly influenced by the American worldview, and its characteristically hostile attitude toward nature and human nature". (Miller, Ron. (1990) What Are Schools For? Holistic Education in American Culture. Holistic Education Press. Brandon Vermont. Chapter 1, Themes of American Culture. Chapter 1, Themes of American Culture.)

...(File CULTURE1 ....mechanistic and reductionistic explanations of the human 'sciences' such as behavioral psychology and sociology were accepted as valid explanations for the workings of human nature.

 Competition ..professionalism.

 The American worldview  is based on a number of concepts with which Americans have formulated their own particular form of 'nationalism.' Their 'nation' is identified with a set of abstract ideals derived from Protestantism, scientific reductionism, democracy and capitalism. Since its inception, Americans have believed that their form of nationalism offers the best example for the rest of humanity to follow. With defensive aggression, they have mistrusted other peoples and other cultures. They have mistrusted the natural human behaviour of the natural human being. They have mistrusted human nature itself. Adopted by the Protestant Calvinist and Puritan movements, the 'Fall/Redemption' theology of 'orthodox' Protestant Christianity formed the basis for their profound mistrust of human nature.  Consequently the natural human being is brought into this life tainted with sin and is therefore inherently 'evil.' Depending on God's 'redemption' for an afterlife without suffering, the individual must suffer in this life. The evil impulses of human nature cannot be trusted and must necessarily be restrained. Each individual has a moral responsibility for restraining his own evil impulses. He must depend on the authority of strict codes of civil law, social mores and ethical standards. Those individuals who abide by the codes are considered to be 'moral' and can teach and preach the moral life.

  With its roots in orthodox Protestantism, the American 'scientific worldview' placed severe limitations on human experience and human potential...(File CULTURE1 p. 3)...

Further limitations on human experience resulted from the economic theories of capitalism. Based on the belief that nature must be controlled, the worldview of capitalism assumes that the natural human being is lazy and needs to be disciplined to do work. Competition between individuals is encouraged in order to 'weed out' those who are lazy and undisciplined. Individualism and self-assertion are encouraged to increase the competition. Work is measured in terms of tangible results and productivity. Successful work is rewarded with economic and social status. Materialistic values are based on respect for the sanctity of private property and the achievement of professionalism. The life of the intellect...and the quest for self-realization are not valued.(File CULTURE1)..of necessary institutional changes.

 Derived from orthodox Protestatnism and its emphasis on religious texts and creeds, the American moralistic worldview has stressed the importance of authorities in dealing with educational practices.

.(File CULTURE1).. 'adult education.'

(Paul Goodman) We force children to grow up absurd. "Any reform in schooling has to deal with the absurdities. The society and the schooling system creates dependent personalities. Addictions of dependent personalities are the things which are killing the nation: brainless competition, recreational sex, pornography of violence, gambling, alcohol, "and the worst pornography of all - lives devoted to buying things, accumulation as a philosophy." (Growing Up Absurd 75)

We need an educational philosophy that works - one based on the belief that 'self-knowledge is the only basis for true knowledge.' At every age, the child finds himself with a problem to solve.

In the American system, time is taken away from the children to develop self-knowledge. Children must be trusted with independent study from a very early age. Their privacy and solitude must be respected. They must be allowed ....?? In our highly organized system of machine production and its corresponding social relations, the practice is, by 'vocational guidance' to fit people wherever they are needed in the productive system. It has been shown in Russia, Germany and China that it is possible to condition great masses to perform as desired.

 EDUCATION IS AN ART Education in the true sense is an art. Human nature demands liberty, equality, fraternity. (Growing Up Absurd 7) "Each person can become a poet and philosopher in the real sense." "There still have to be changes in our society and culture so as to meet the appetites and capacities of human nature, in order to grow up." (11) Growth like any ongoing function requires adequate objects : "Our society is simply deficient in many of the most elementary objective opportunities and worthwhile goals that could make growing up possible." (Growing Up Absurd 12) The "society is lacking in honest public speech and people are not taken seriously". This thwarts aptitude and corrupts ingenuous patriotism. It corrupts the fine arts and shackles science. It has no honor. It is a waste of humanity. "In our society, bright lively children, with the potentiality for knowledge, noble ideals, honest effort and some kind of worthwhile achievement are transformed into useless and cynical bipeds..." (Growing Up Absurd 14) "Pre-empting of the means and the brains by the organization and the shutting out of those who do not conform, can go as far as to cause delusions." When the organization has too much power, "people put up with a system because there are no alternatives. And when one cannot think of anything to do, soon one ceases to think of it at all." (preface p. ix) "In the greast interlocking system of the corporation eoplelive not by attending to the job, but by status, role playing and tenure and they work to maximize profits, prestige or votes.

On teaching: "A universally admired teacher is fired for disobeying an administrative order that would hinder teaching." "The system is inefficient; the overhead is high, the task is rarely done with love, style and excitement, for such beauties emerge only from absorption in real objects; sometimes the task is not done at all; and those who could do it best become either cynical or resigned." (Goodman, Paul. Growing Up Absurd: Problems of Youth in the Organized System. New York: Random House, 1961.) 

 "Learning to understand the communications of one's conscience is exceedingly difficult, mainly for two reasons. In order to listen to the voice of our conscience, and this is exactly what most people in our culture have difficulty doing. We listen to every voice and to everybody but not to ourselves. We are constantly exposed to the noise and opinions and ideas hammering at us from everywhere: motion pictures, newspapers, radio, idle chatter....Listening to oneself is so difficult because this art requires another ability, rare in modern man: that of being alone with oneself. We have developed a phobia of being alone; we prefer the most trivial and even obnoxious company, the most meaningless activities, to being alone with ourselves." (Fromm Man For Himself 161)

 To study human nature study the MATURE MIND. The immature mind is the product of thwarted human development.

FALSE PREMISE OF AMERICAN CULTURE "There has been a special tendency in Western culture, historically determined, to asssume that the instinctoid needs of the human being, his so-called 'animal nature' are bad or 'evil'. As a consequence, many cultural institutions are set up for the express purpose of controlling, inhibiting, suppressing and repressing this original nature of man." (Maslow 164) This is the basic false premise of western, especially American culture. Many social problems cannot be resolved if they are perceived in the framework of this false premise. Questions are formulated in the context of the view that man's basic nature is evil. Attempts to resolve social problems fail. Change the basic premise. The instinctoid needs of the human being are not evil but good. Man's 'animal nature' - human nature - is not evil. The 'evil' of human nature results from the failure of the human being to achieve self-actualization - realization of human potential - the failure to achieve 'humanness'. The basic right of the human being is the right to be human. An individual's responsibility to himself is to develop his humanness. By developin his own humanity, the individual is at the same time fulfilling his responsibility to the rest of humanity.

CAPITALISM AND DENIAL OF BIOLOGICAL NEED FOR MATERNAL LOVE Success of capitalism depends on peoples' love for money. Deprivation of the biological need for love results in sublimated love for money and power. In the interests of money and power, the capitalists deny maternal love. They do not invest in the family or the human aspects of society. They focus on the money and make people believe that they 'care'. The paternalistic attitude towards the 'American people' is characteristic of the 'oppressor-oppressed' situation.

CORRUPTION OF HUMAN VALUES  The capitalists make money on crime, ill health, ignorance, addictive behavior, and all the ills and evils which people are capable of as a result of their immaturity, frustaration and unhappiness. Human values, human development, and education for inner freedom are not valued because the capitalists cannot make mney on people who are mature, content, and happy. Maturity, contentment and happiness are not valued in the capitalist society because they have no economic 'value'. Creative intelligence is only valued if it can be used to further the interests of the capitalists. The capitalists depend on peoples' irresponsible behavior to keep their power over them. They pay 'lip-service' to 'educational reform', health care reform', 'crime prevention', 'police protection' etc. using the words to maintain their power over the people. The expression 'pursuit of happiness' is blatantly used to refer to the pursuit of monetary gain. The result is extreme corruption of human values and and the value of humanity.

The self-adjusted man of American culture could be conceived as representing the ideal and over-belief of American psychological theory. Abraham Maslow's scientific approach to the nature of the human being can be cnsidered one of the outcomes which is profitable to mankind.

ISSUE OF POWER Years of living avoidance strategies undermines the sense of power and accounts for peoples drive to 'succeed.' The reactive-responsive orientation contains the basic premise that one is powerless. The power lies in the circumstantial stimuli. "Success is an empty victory" "Most people in our society were nurtered and trained within a reactive-responsive orientation." The majority of behavioral rules people were given as children were based on avoidance or prevention strategies. "Don't do this, that etc... Children are told either what they can't do or how bad they are because of what they are doing. Most educational systems also reinforce a reactive-responsive orientation. "One focus of education is to weave the child into the fabric of society" (Growing Up Absurd 26) "The power in the situation is clearly defined as being in the school r the parents. So the students are really learning about power. What they learn about power is that they are powerless. " They are learning about their purpose in lfe. Unfortunately what they learn is that they are only an insignificant one among many, and that they need to conform. Under these conditions, what purpose or meaning does their life ultimately have? A recent survey (date?) by the Carnegie Institute of Education reports that 90 percent of high school students in the US feel that their lives are useless. If you go along with the notion that things are the way you are told they are, and act appropriately - responsive behavior- you might be labeled a 'good student' or a 'nice person'. "Responsive students usually receive good grades in school, actively adapt to the norms and standards set by people in positions of authority." As adults, they continue to respond in certain ways. Result is that people don't master the skills they need to create their lives. They learn only how to respond and adapt. "Reactive" behavior implies an active opposition to society's message that things are the way they are portrayed at home or at school, but reactive people are usually labeled as 'rebellious students' 'difficult people' 'political activists' 'extremists' and so on.

In the real mastery of life, there is no suppression of emotion. There is a direct recognition of the emotional state. A person who is master of his own life is committed to doing always what is important to do, independent of emotional experience. This does not mean that emotion must be suppressed. On the contrary, the emotional state must be recognized in order to put it in the right perspective. For the development of creative initiative, the senior force is creation. The emotions must remain subordinate to the creative process. Louis Pasteur said that " a man of science may hope for what may be said of him in the future, but he cannot think of the insults - or the compliments of his own day."" It is important to be true to yourself and your purpose in life. What is creative behavior? Ask "what result do I want to create? Focus on the result.

The confusion of values in American cultue results from the coercive social system (Mario Montessori) Manifestations of the confusion: 'Freedom' is confused with licence: (F.J.J. Buytendijk, Experienced Freedom and Moral Freedom in the Child's Conscience, Amsterdam: A.M.I.Communications, 1963.) 'Adaptation' is confused with conformism. (Jeanne Lampl-deGroot, "Some Thoughts on Adaptation and Conformism" in R.M. Loewenstein et al., Psychoanalysis - A General Psychology, New York: International Universiies Press, 1966) Discipline is confused with submissiveness. (Huxley? Ends and Means, New York: Harper and Brothers, 1937. see p. 200ff where he quotes Maria Montessori and discusses the coexistence of freedom and responsibility vs. education for bullying and subordination in Western democracies.) 'Independence' is confused with anti-authoritarianism. (Hannah Arendt, Between Past and Future, New York: Meriden Books, 1963 p. 190) 'Equality' is confused with uniformity. (Hannah Arendt, Between Past and Future, New York: Meriden Books, 1963 p. 190)

In the American culture, "we are dealing with an infantile attitude toward the social system" It had its beginnings in the child's reaction to a dominant and intolerant parent. The child continues to be motivated by the misconceived value system - a value distortion. (Montessori Education for Human Development 89 ...95)

Capitalism corrupts the psychological value of work by making people believe that they are pursuing happiness by working for money. The important thing is not the kind of work which a person does, but the principle of work itself. "All work is noble. The only ignoble thing is to live without work." Furthermore, intellectual and manual work are complementary and "equally essential in a civilized existence." (Montessori From Childhood to Adolescence, New York: Schocken Books, 1973 p. 103.)

"The ability to work is an aspect of the development of the personality, with which it is interrelated." (Walter Neff. Work and Human Behavior. New York: Atherton Press, 1968 )

Capitalists 'capitalised ' on the feminist movement. (See MacLuhan.) Women were made to think of their 'careers' as more important than their children. The word 'career' used in the interest of the capitalists. References: Mario Montessori Education for Human Development

Culture of capitalism as denial of the right for normal growth and development... mature growth or 'self-actualisation'
Capitalism denies the child's birthright by denying the child's natural inner strivings towards maturity and humanity. In this way capitalism dehumanizes - it denies the most basic human right - the right to become a fully developed human being, living in harmony with his own humanity - living in freedom. Capitalism corrupts the psychological value of work by making people believe that they are pursuing happiness by working for money. The important thing is not the kind of work which a person does, but the principle of work itself. "All work is noble. The only ignoble thing is to live without work." Furthermore, intellectual and manual work are complementary and "equally essential in a civilized existence." (From Childhood to Adolescence, New York: Schocken Books, 1973 p. 103.) 

CAPITALISM AND THE "ADJUSTED" MAN The success of capitalism depends on the denigration of human values...(File CULTURE1)..of the 'job'. Perception of the environment focuses on those aspects which might be 'useful' or 'threatening'. In this framework of task-oriented perception, cognition is incomplete. The criteria of a person's health and worth are based on the person's suitability or competence for a 'job' or the 'workplace'. 'Adjustment ' to the 'society' is the cause for neuroses ...(File CULTURE1 p.4 )...saftey and health. "It is not a psychological question of poor influences and bad attitudes but an objective question of real opportunities for worthwhile experiences. Our society is simply deficient in many of the most elementary objective opportunities and worthwhile goals that could make growing up possible." (Goodman Growing Up Absurd: problems of youth in the organized system New York: Random House, 1961. 12)

"The worst feature of our present organized system of doing things is its indirectness, its blurring of the object. The idea of directly addressing crying objective public needs, like shelter and education, and using our immense and indeed surplus resources to satisfy them, is anathema." "In the great interlocking system of the corporation people live not by attending to the job, but by status, role playing, and tenure and they work to maximize profits, prestige, or votes regardless of utility or even disutility, but automobile companies continue to manufacture cars and persuade people to buy them" The teaching function must be respected. "In this country we have the topsy-turvey situation that a teacher must devote himself to satisfying the administrator and finacier rather than doing his job, and a universally admired teacher is fired for disobeying an administrative order that would hinder teaching." We live in a system in which little direct attention is paid to the object, the function, the program, the task the need; but immense attention to the role, procedure, prestige, and profit. "The system is inefficient; the overhead is high, the task is rarely done with love, style, and excitement, for such beauties emerge only from absorption in real objects; sometimes the task is not done at all; and those who could do it best ebecome either cynical or resigned."

 Education in American cultural context Education is a function of culture. Growth of the individual depends on the extent to which the culture facilitates the growth process. In the American culture, the individual must struggle to grow in the context of the values of capitalism. American culture: "As a culture we retain, along with our reverence for learning, a scorn, if not a suspicion, of it." (6) Americans' reservation toward serious education is (7) Their history "includes a consciousness which associates people of 'higher' learning with those who assume a sense of moral and human superiority ." (7) This stems from the realization of the power of education to induce fear. It stems from the fear of the powerlessness which comes from a lack of education. It stems from the knowledge that the power could be used to "challenge existing institutions and power arrangements." (Purpel 7) Americans are characteristically suspicious of 'serious education' and the intellectual process. Their emphasis on the narrower concerns of education must be analysed in a historical context. Their reservation for serious dialogue of theoretical aspects of education is rooted in their "traditional aversion to elitism and aristocracy."(7) With their historical tradition of 'democracy', and 'equality', they have tended to reject the idea that people deserve a better life because they are better 'educated'. They have discussed education in terms of the pragmatism associated with their version of 'nationalism' based on ideals of democracy etc. With their emphasis on 'pragmatism', they have emphasized the practical applications of education. They have deemphasized the abstract and theoretical aspects of education for all people. Avoiding the issues of 'serious education', they have tended to focus on diplomas, certificates and 'credentials'. They have been confused about their priorities. Should we emphasize 'vocational' or general education? what should we have in our 'curriculum'). They have had unrealistic and even contradictory expectations of their schools. "We want our schools to discipline our children and support and encourage their independence." (6) In their discussion of 'education' within the narrow scope of their political ideals, they have overlooked theoretical alternatives.  Holt, J. How Children Fail. New York, London Pitman Publihing Co. 1964.

 Reactive-responsive orientation  Before this time in history, the concept of human advancement was focused on sources outside the individual. Statesmen shaped the governments etc...".Robert Fritz coined the term "circumstantial stimuli": any stimuli, external or internal, which seem to force people to take action. These sometimes evoke spontaneous reaction and at other times seem to call for 'appropriate' responses. This is the 'reactive-responsive orientation'. In this kind of situation, it seems that the circumstances are more powerful than you are. Strategies are designed to avoid immediate unwanted circumstances. Longer range strategies are designed to prevent unwanted circumstances from happening in the first place. This is called the 'pre-emptive strike'. Spiritual poverty results in defensive strategy; all the energy is focused on what the person does not want. People using it are continually in a position of potentially compromising whatever they may truly want in their lives for the sake of safety, security and sense of peace. Spiritual richness results in creative strategy; all the energy is focused on what the person does want. People using it are positive and creative, accomplishing things which enhance their own welfare and happiness as well as that of others. (Robert Fritz. The Path of Least Resistance DMA Inc. Pickering Way, Salem MA 0l970 l984 27)

GROWING UP IN AMERICAN CULTURE  Success-oriented culture of capitalism - "we should see that failure is honorable and constructive rather than humiliating" (Holt, J. How Children Fail. 37) Children are made to feel humiliated by failure rather than regard it as a chance for self-correction. Individual in cultural context: the cultural implications of 'failure': in a success oriented culture children are "afraid of failing, afraid of being kept back, afraid of being called stupid, afraid of feeling themselves stupid" - insult - fear interferes with the natural process of learning from error- the brain's self-correcting mechanism-the most constructive learning process. Natural learning is learning from mistakes. In the success oriented culture mistakes are equated with failure. Worrying about 'failure' prevents courage to make mistakes and learn from them. Success is rated too highly and children learn to depend on 'success' too much. They learn to equate stupidity and ignorance. These are not the same. If one is ignorant of the facts, intelligent use of the facts is what is important. With fear of failure, "children use strategies to protect themselves from embarassment, punishment, disapproval, loss of status" (Holt, J. How Children Fail. 48) They 'put up a good front' to look as if they know what they are doing. Self-limiting and self-defeating strategies are "dictated by fear" ...Fear destroys intelligence" and fear affects a child's whole way of looking at, thinking about and dealing with life." (Holt, J. How Children Fail 49) Children must not be afraid. In the capitalist society children learn to control their fears and adjust to them. Fear destroys their intelligence and their potential. Unable to control their own fear they protect themselves by making others afraid. "Gang members are no more than uneasy allies, welded together partly by fear of the world outside and partly by the certain knowledge that nobody else in the world gives a damn about them."(Holt, J. How Children Fail. 57) With failure to succeed, to reduce other people's expectations and demands, children can choose to fail. Unable to meet the high standards they don't try. They choose to fail as a strategy. Incompetence has the advantage of not creating disappointment. Children are made to be afraid so that their behavior can be controlled. Fear and anxiety can be used as instruments of control. Fear makes a person incapable of constructive thinking and working. Real learning and teaching is problem-centered rather than answer-centered. A relationship must be found. Effective learning is connected with reality. Symbolic operations must be associated with concerete operations. "The true test of intelligence is not how much we know how to do, but how we behave when we don't know what to do" (Holt, J. How Children Fail. 165) Intelligence is learning from mistakes. In the American culture, children's capacity for learning and intelligence is destroyed by 'education.' (Holt, J. How Children Fail 167) We destroy the love of learning in children (Holt, J. How Children Fail 168) "We kill not only their curiosity but their feeling that it is a good and admirable thing to be curious" (Holt, J. How Children Fail. 168) "We cut children off from their own common sense and the world of reality by requiring them to play with and shove around words and symbols that have little or no meaning for them."(169) Textbooks give a distorted view of the world. (Holt, J. How Children Fail. 170) We manipulate them to think the way we want them to (Holt, J. How Children Fail. 171) We are dishonest about our feelings and the dishonesty makes for unpleasant atmosphere in our schools (Holt, J. How Children Fail. 172) "A child who is learning naturally, following his curiosity where it leads him, adding to his mental model of reality whatever he needs and can find a place for, and rejecting without fear or guilt what he does not need, is growing - in knowledge, in the love of learning, and in the ability to learn." (Holt, J. How Children Fail. 178) "There is no way to coerce children without making them afraid, or more afraid. The 'progressives' did not recognize this. They thought coercion could be kindly. But non-threatening coercion is an illusion.( Holt, J. How Children Fail. ) "You know, kids really like to learn; we just don't like to be pushed around." (sixth grader Anna) "So let's stop pushing them around!"(John Holt Why Chilldren Fail 180) With the development of modern capitalistic society, a unique character orientation has evolved as a mode of relatedness with the world, the so-called 'marketing character orientation.' The individual perceives himself as a commodity to be sold on the market. His self-esteem thus depends on conditions which are beyond his control. He considers himself valuable only if he is 'successful' on the competitive market. Unable to feel that his own value is constituted by his own human values, his self-esteem is insecure and he remains constantly dependent on others for approval. To protect his sense of dignity and pride, he is driven to strive for success. As a nonproductive form of human relatedness, the market character orientation does not develop the individual's human potential. Nor does it foster any form of permament relatedness. On the contrary, it creates the quick changeability of attitudes characteristic of a changing market. No one particular attitude is predominant and the semblance of human qualities can be sold and exchanged when others are more desirable. The manipulation of the individual's character contributes to his confused feelings about his self-identity. He perceives his own powers as commodities which are alien to him. What becomes important to him is not the achievement of his self-realization, in the process of using his powers. What matters instead is his success in the process of selling himself and his powers as commodities for the market. To be successful he must please others and play different roles. He must substitute prestige, status and success for his own feeling of identity. Utterly dependent on the way others perceive him, he is often forced to keep up the role in which he is successful. Perceiving himself in terms of market value, he perceives other individuals in terms of their market value. With the extinction of individuality and indifference to a person's relationship with himself and others, the meaning of the right to 'equality' for conditions of development degenerates. The individual neglects himself and forms superficial relationships with other people. Within a culturally manifest marketing orientation, people relate to each other like interchangeable commodities. The inevitable effect on the individual is to create a profound sense of loneliness and anxiety which results in his search for depth and intensity of feeling in love relationships. Under the illusion that his loneliness can be cured in the love relationship he becomes unaware of the indivisibility of love for one person and love for one's neighbour. The market character orientation also affects the individual's perception of knowledge and the thought process. 'Psychology' is used for manipulation of oneself and others, for advertising and political propaganda. 'Thinking' means grasping and manipulating factual data for purposes of power and prestige. 'Intelligence' means efficient mental adaptation to a given situation. 'Knowing' is a tool and 'knowledge' is a commodity. 'Truth' is not attained by observation and analysis. In the educational system, learning and the acquisiton of knowledge have degenerated into the gathering of as much information as possible to increase its exchange value on the market. With the emphasis on knowledge of factual data, development of the individual's innate reasoning powers is deemphasized. With the devaluation of psychology, intelligence, knowlege and truth, the individual is discouraged from thinking, learning and knowing. Rather than fostering the individual's instinctive powers of motivation, the system inhibits his development to self-actualization. Combined with the deemphasis on individuality and the need to conform is the emphasis on initiative and self-responsibility. The result is a feeling of helplessness which is cause for the individual's subtly receptive attitudes towards 'experts' and 'public opinion' to tell him how to do things and how to think.

theme: American culture is based on American 'nationalisn' and formulated in terms of the abstract ideals upon which the Americans founded their 'nation'. American nationalism combines the ideals of democracy with belief systems which are derived from reductionist science, capitalism and Protestantism.

 Mechanistic explanations for the understanding of human nature have been provided by reductionist science in the form of the human sciences i.e. behavioural psychology and sociology... psychological and sociological. Behavioural psychology emphasizes the objectivity of a study of the science of the mind and describes human behaviour in terms of conditioned learning, learning outcomes, students' performance in testing. Sociology... In the interest of promoting the economic theories of capitalism, emphasis is placed on the necessity of controlling human nature, the knowledge of the 'scientific' validity ...for doing so... possibilities for controlling human nature and the importance of... in keeping with the traditions of scientific reductionism, schools teach the values of hierarchy ...in keeping with traditions of capitalism, schools teach the values of material success... in keeping with the 'traditions' of Protestantism, the schools teach the values of moralism and control...

 The worldview of capitalism is based on the belief that nature must be controlled... that the human being is naturally lazy and needs to be disciplined to do work. Competition between individuals is encouraged in order to 'weed out' those who are lazy and undisciplined. Individualism and self-assertion are encouraged to increase the competition. Work is measured in terms of tangible results and productivity. Successful work is rewarded with economic and social status. Materialistic values are based on respect for the sanctity of private property and the achievement of professionalism. Questions of the aims of education are formulated in the context of American political ideals and the American form of government. In the context of the political ideals of American culture, American education is perceived in terms of an individual's responsibility for adaptation to American nationalism and its culture... educational policy focuses on the reproduction of the values and myths of a consumer society... fosters the traditional values of American nationalism based on principles of scientific reductionism, materialistic capitalism and orthodox Protestantism. the American 'scientific' worldview placed severe limitations on human experience and the human potential, in spite of the more optimistic view of human nature. Puritan ethics, with the emphasis on work and success as evidence of goodness, supported the feeling of security and tended to give life meaning and a religious sense of fulfillment. By the twentieth century, the accepted valid explanations for the workings of human nature were the mechanistic and reductionistic explanations of the human 'sciences' - behavioral psychology and sociology. The economic theories of capitalism place limitations on human experience. The myth of orthodox Protestantism - control the innate 'evil' impulses of human nature - combined with the myth of the human 'sciences' - the control of human nature is scientifically valid - these have been combined with the traditional ideals of 'democracy' - equal opportunity and political freedom. All these together formed the basis for justifying the economic theories of capitalism.

Implications for education  

 In American culture, requirements are established for children's education and yet there has been a general decline in the educational standards. Theoretically, if learning is a basic natural function of the healthy mind, then there is a dilemma facing today's schools: how does the teacher instruct within the limits of society's established requirements while respecting and maintaining children's natural function of learning? In other words, how do we motivate children to learn? Teaching methods applied within the context of an understanding of human nature and the real aim of education could resolve the dilemma of generally declining motivation in today's schools.

Americans misinterpreted Dewey and "progressive education." Hard work is necessary ... children must be happy in school with their work. The teaching of natural sciences in primary grades -until age fourteen- should be based on exercises of observation.

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References:

Steiner, R. Philosophy of Freedom: Philosophy of Spiritual Activity. The Basis for a Modern World Conception. Some results of introspective observation following the methods of Natural Science. London: Rudolf Steiner Press, 1970.

Zbigniew Brzezinski, America in the Technetronic Age, Encounter January 1968, pp. 16-26

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Individual in context of American culture Conflicts inherent in the culture produce effects which are relevant to the problem of maturity of the individual in the American culture. The individual is a divided self, with doubts, fears and inner tensions manifest in the 'mental illness, violence, crime, alcoholism, drug addiction, anxieties, prejudice, etc. Conditioning influences of the culture are conflicting. Cultural conflicts include the faith in education and contempt for educated people, apathy and driving ambition,etc. Educational institutions which depend on the 'business ethics' of the business civilization prevent the individual's personal and psycholgical growth to maturity. Few individuals become mature in a culture which makes 'common sense' out of mental dishonesty.

The major institutions of the society are divided selves and not whole selves. Their influence on the individual is not one which produces wholeness of character. The institution of 'education' embodies and encourages the individual's fixation in immaturity. The American economy has never been interested din the whole human being but obnly in those aspects of his nature from which some monetary profit can be derived (Overstreet 177) An individual might be important to the system as a worker - a person who could be hired to make certain motions of his hands that would contribute to the production of sable goods. He might be important as a consumer - a person who could be persuaded to turn over his money in exchange for goods. He might be important as a a investor- a person with surplus money that could be 'hired'to work for a corporation. He might be important as an inventor, possessor of know-how, ambitions, a 'name' , and so on - all things which could be converted into programs for spending, things or qualitiies considred as 'marketable.' Man's 'humanity' - his growth to full maturity has held slight interest for the economy.

"For him to grow into full maturity might mean that he would have rich inner resources with which to entertain himself; and that he would be unsusceptible to those competitive prestige appeals that are the delight of advertisers; and that he would feel a deep insistent concern about the rights of the dispossessed;. For him to grow into such full maturity would, therefore, make him far less valuable as a source of profit-making than he is in his adult immaturity." (178)

 cultural atmosphere When there is a lack of wholeness in the conditioning influences, the individual cannot grow into a psychologically whole, mature human being. The individual is a compartmentalized self, trying to harmonize the various 'selves' of his experience - the domestic self, the business self - the religious self, the political self etc. all housed in one physical self. In the face of the cultural conflicts, the compartmentalized and divided self has difficulty maturing into a psychologically whole human being. The individual has difficulty building sound linkages of responsibility with the world when education is both exalted and despised.

It is difficult for a child to grow to maturity in a culture in which "the natural hazards of life are vastly multiplied by the confusions of the culture and in which he faces an abnormal temptation to remain dependent and irresponsible... where the same two parents send him to school, want him to bring home grades they can view with pride, talk ablut the inmpracticality of what is learned in school, admore,people less for what they know than for what they own, and make it clear that teachers ar nobodies compared with business men and movie stars." (Overstreet. 141)

Confusion of values makes for a sense of personal bewilderment and helplessness; the average individual gets what happiness he can out of doing what everybody else does. To 'survive', the individual has to accept the cultural norms. Adult immaturity is an accepted cultural norm. The philosphical tradition of intellectual and social liberalism requires that the individual grows up into full psychological maturity. The traditions of political and religious authoritarianism (dogma of man as a child of sin) do not require the individual's psychological maturity and in fact depend on the individual's psychological immaturity.

 The inherent cultural confusion comes from the competition of the two conflicting philosophies: rational liberalism and antirational materialism. "Authoritative religion might want man to remain a child in his obedience and dependence, whie nineteenth century antirationalism might want man to remain a child in his obedience and dependence, whie nineteenth century antirationalism might want him to remain a child in egocentric aggrandizement; but in an emergency the two would accurately feel that they had more in common than either with a philosophy that asked man to put his childhood behind him and to achieve the spirital independence of maturity." (142)

 The unity of the human race an be envisioned for the first time in history

  AMERICAN CULTURE and CONCEPT OF ECONOMIC MAN: ADAM SMITH'S PHILOSOPHY

  LAISSEZ-FAIRE ECONOMICS AND 'ECONOMIC MAN': ADAM SMITH (1727-1790)

 "It is the maxim of every prudent master of a family never to attempt to make at home what it will cost him more to make than to buy...What is prudence in the conduct of every private family can scarce be folly in that of a great kingdom." (Adam Smith. Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. 1776)  

Notion of free competitive economy or 'laissez-faire' economics   In the eighteenth century Age of Enlightenment, almost every facet of the Old Regime in France was severely criticized. The 'philosophes' reacted strongly against controlled economy and the 'mercantilist doctrine' of equating money and wealth. They proclaimed the 'liberal doctrine' of a natural and freely competitive economy known as 'laissez-faire economics', a term which was derived from 'laissez faire, laissez passer' meaning live and let live or 'let nature take its course'. It was philosopher Adam Smith from Scotland who formulated the classical doctrine of the free competitive economy of laissez-faire economics.

Smith wrote 'Wealth of Nations' In 1776 Smith published his book Wealth of Nations in which he gave a new meaning to the term 'wealth', a term which had been synonymous with accumulation of some kind of 'specie' - gold, silver, money. Smith perceived wealth in terms of economic well-being which resulted not from the possession and accumulation of treasure but from the process of improving one's social conditions through productivity or 'work'. Furthermore productivity could be increased on a national scale with the 'division of labour'.

Smith claimed it was natural law that governed the economic liberty of the individual and free trade among individuals and among nations as well. According to the laws of nature, people compete freely in their striving to improve their own social conditions. And individuals who work in free competition naturally enrich their society as a whole as if they are being guided by nature's 'invisible hand'.

The notion of laissez-faire economics provided the framework for his theory of 'free trade among nations'. Smith believed that though the process of social improvement depends on economic freedom, true liberty of the economy is dependent on the right education.

These enlightened views of a natural human economics were to be misinterpreted in the American culture which promotes the metaphor of 'economic man'.

Misinterpretation of 'survival of the fittest'  The misintrerpretation of Adam Smith's concept of economic man is based on a misinterpretation of Darwin's phrase 'survival of the fittest'. In the context of Adam Smith's philosophy of economics, the term is used incorrectly to signify that the human indiviudal proves his fitness by amassing wealth and running his competitors out of business. Furthermore, sympathy spent on victims of the economic struggle is sympathy wasted because victims of the economic struggle are considered Nature's unfit'. In this context, the interpretation of the concept of 'economic man' pitted one individual against another, each absorbed in his own self-interest. Fostering a type of human fragmentation, the economic man concept set one aspect or phase of human nature against others. Not only were human individuals to be divided against each other, but they were to be divided against themselves. The life of the individual was to be divided into compartments or 'roles' with sound proof walls between them.

" Adam Smith's economic theories 'cut the bonds of mutual responsibility between man and man'... Darwin's phrase 'survival of the fittest' was used to signify that man proves his fitness by amassing wealth and running his competitors out of business. Also, sympathy spent on victims of the economic struggle was sympathy wasted: such victims were Nature's 'unfit'. The concept of 'economic man' not only pitted one individual against another, each absorbed in his own self-interest, but fostered yet another type of human fragmentation: it set one phase of man's nature against other phases. Economic advantage became something that could be pursued by means not subject to supervision by religion or ethics. Thus the life of the individual was divided into compartments with such sound proof walls between them that a person in his role as 'religious man', 'civic man' or 'domestic man' could not even hear what he said in his role as 'economic man'. Not only were men divided against themselves, but man was divided against himself". (FrommMan For Himself 130)

 As compartmentalized selves, individuals who were faced with social and cultural conflicts have to try to harmonize the various 'selves' of their experience - their domestic self, their business self, their religious self, their civic self, their political self ...all housed in one physical self which does not listen to what is said in the role of the economic self of 'economic man'. This compartmentalized and divided self finds it very difficult to mature into a psychologically, intellectually, emotonally and morally whole human being. The individual has difficulty building sound linkages of responsibility with the world when education in the cultural atmosphere is both exalted and despised. It is difficult for a child to grow to maturity in a culture in which the natural hazards of life are greatly multiplied by the confusions of the culture.

As a result of the misinterpretation of Adam Smith's economic theories, the concept of 'economic man' cut the bonds of mutual responsibility between human individuals.

It is commonly believed that economic advantage can be pursued by any means and that the pursuit of wealth is not subject to supervision by religion or by ethics. As a result, conditioning influences of the culture are in conflict. The resulting cultural conflicts which are produced have effects which are relevant to the problem of personal growth and maturity. Cultural conflicts include for example a faith in education and at the same time a contempt for educated people, apathy and at the same time a driving ambition and so on... The individual who attempts to adapt to conflicting cultural forces becomes a divided self, with doubts, fears and inner tensions and anxieties. On the social scale these are manifest in the mental illness, violence, crime, alcoholism, drug addiction, social prejudice and so on. With the lack of wholeness in the conditioning influences of the culture, the individual is hampered from growing into a psychologically whole, mature human being.

Children growing in this kind of environment face an abnormal temptation to give up in their striving for self-realisation and to remain dependent and irresponsible.

Implications for education True economic freedom of the individual depends on an education of the person as a whole being... i.e. 'holistic education'. Holistic education is education which provides the necessary social conditions appropriate for personal growth i.e. the psychological, emotional, intellectual and moral growth i.e. mature growth 'self-actualisation'. Education for self-actualisation results in the formation of mature, ethical and responsible citizens of a civilised society.